Month: January 2025

Sunday Psalm Studies: Psalm 120

Psalm 120

Dead Sea MSS: 4QPse (vv. 6-7)

Psalms 120-134 are rightly regarded as comprising a distinct collection (of 15 compositions), marked by the heading tolu&M^h^ ryv! (trad., “song of ascents”). In all likelihood, this collection had taken shape well before its inclusion into the wider canonical Psalter. The collection itself would seem to date from the post-exilic period (5th century B.C.?), though almost certainly earlier hymns and poems (or portions of them) were adapted and included. At the same time, as we have seen in a number of our prior studies, even the later (post-exilic) compositions in the Psalter made use of traditional forms and genres, sometimes preserving archaic features along the way. The collection as a whole will be discussed in some detail when we reach the conclusion of the individual studies (on Pss 120-134), but, here at the outset, some initial comments are appropriate.

With regard to the heading tolu&M^h^ ryv!, when translating it, one can scarcely do better than the elegant “song of ascents”, even though the precise meaning and nature of the “ascent” (hl*u&m^) involved remains uncertain and can be debated. The noun hl*u&m^, derived from the root hl*u* (“go up”), can be understood (and used) either as a locative noun (i.e., the place where one ‘goes up’), or as a verbal noun (i.e., the act/movement of ‘going up’). Both uses are attested in the Scriptures, and either (or both) of them could apply here. The locative meaning has been assumed for commentators who interpret the Psalms in terms of a ritual setting in the Temple precincts. Support for this can be found by way of a tradition in the Mishnah (m. Middot 2:5; Sukkah 5:4), relating the fifteen Songs to the fifteen steps in the Temple complex leading up from the court of women to the court of Israel; the priestly (Levite) officiants would sing Psalms on these steps during the festival of Sukkot (cf. Allen, p. 193).

Much more widely accepted today is the explanation that connects the “ascents” with the pilgrimage festivals—when Israelites and Jews collectively would “go up” to Jerusalem, the ‘ascent’ referring to the elevated hilltop location of Jerusalem (i.e., the ‘mount’ of Zion). Actually, it could refer to any journey to Jerusalem, though such a journey itself would normally assume a festal religious or ritual setting. For the use of the verb hl*u* (“go up, ascend”) in such a context, see, e.g., Isa 2:3; Psalm 24:3. One is reminded of the comparable use of the verb a)nabai/nw (“step up”, i.e., go/come up) in the Gospels, and, in particular, the important theological use of the verb in the Johannine Gospel, tying the exaltation of the incarnate Son (Jesus) to his journey (‘going up’) to Jerusalem for the Passover festival.

Some commentators have preferred to associate the hl*u&m^ of the Songs with the return of Israelites and Jews from the Exile (cf. the use of hl*u* in Ezra 2:1; 7:9). As noted above, it is likely that the collection, as a whole, dates from the post-exilic period, and thus may well draw upon this special meaning of “ascent”. Indeed, the first pilgrimages to Jerusalem, upon the return to the land, in order to perform the festivals, must have been occasions of great joy, imbued with profound religious significance and a sense of new-found hope. Even so, I would maintain that it is the specific journey to Jerusalem, especially pilgrimage-journey on the festal occasions, that is primarily in view.

Also noteworthy is the “staircase” or “step” parallelism that occurs in many of these Songs—a poetic feature otherwise known by the Greek term plokh/ (or e)piplokh/). A key word or phrase (or motif) occurring, e.g., in the last line of a verse is then picked up by the first line of the next verse. For examples of this feature in Psalm 120, see the notes below. It has been suggested that this literary-poetic feature might explain the significance of the “ascent” (hl*u&m^) mentioned in the heading. Another possible literary connection involves the apparent influence of the Priestly Blessing of Numbers 6:24-26, which contains 15 words. It has been suggested that the Songs of the collection were intended as an expository commentary (of sorts) on the Priestly Blessing, which would have been pronounced on the ascending “steps” of the Temple porch (cf. the tosefta to the Mishnah tractate Soṭah, 7:7). For more on this line of interpretation, see esp. the article by L. J. Liebreich, “The Songs of Ascents and the Priestly Blessing”, Journal of Biblical Literature [JBL] 74 (1955), pp. 33-36.

Given the importance of Jerusalem/Zion in Pss 120-134, it seems best to explain the noun hl*u&m^ in terms of the journey to Jerusalem, i.e., when one “goes up” to the holy city. The name Zion (/oYx!, ‚iyyôn) is prominent in the collection, occurring seven times (125:1; 126:1; 128:5; 129:5; 132:13; 133:3; 134:3), while Jerusalem is also specifically mentioned another five times (122:2-3, 6; 125:2; 128:5). Interestingly, these are concentrated in Pss 125-134 (the last two groups of 5 Psalms), being absent from the first group of 120-124. This suggests a certain processional aspect to the collection, a journey that climaxes with the celebration of Jerusalem (as the chosen city of God) in Ps 132, followed by the Priestly blessing given (from Jerusalem, and the Temple) in Pss 133-134; cf. also the setting and context of Ps 135 (esp. verse 21). The definite plural tolu&M^h^ (“the [time]s of going up”, “the ascents”), refer, generally and collectively, to any time when a devout Israelite “goes up” to the holy city of God.

As noted above, the poems included in the collection (or added to it), were probably intended as songs suitable for the occasion of the pilgrimage journeys to Jerusalem (for the great festivals, i.e., of Passover, Weeks, and Booths [Sukkot]). With the exception of Ps 132, they are all quite short and simple poetically; they would have been easy to memorize and could be set to any number of melodies. The designation ryv! (“song”) clearly indicates that the poems were intended to be set to music and sung. Even so, the theology and religious thought expressed in the Songs goes well beyond the ritual setting of the pilgrimage festivals. As in many of the other Psalms (including earlier [pre-exilic] compositions with their royal background), Jerusalem and ‘mount’ Zion possess a symbolic importance that is connected with the nature of YHWH Himself (as Creator and King of the universe), and to the covenant that He established with His people. As we proceed through the individual Psalms (120-134), we will be exploring expressions of this theological worldview, including ways in which the older (royal) theology of the Psalms has been adapted and reinterpreted.

In conclusion, and in passing, it is worth noting the peculiar form of the collection in the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa. Psalms 121-132 are grouped together (Ps 120 may have been included, but is not preserved), being followed then by Ps 119. Thus, upon reaching Jerusalem (Ps 132), the collection climaxes with the great Torah-hymn of Ps 119 [cf. the recent extended study], emphasizing the tradition of receiving the Torah,  rather than the Priestly blessing (cf. Pss 133-134), in Jerusalem. Curiously, Psalm 133 occurs at a later point in the manuscript, between Pss 141 and 144.

Introduction to Psalm 120

The initial Song of the collection (cf. the discussion above) draws upon the traditional genre of the Psalms of lament. Indeed, verses 2-4 could have been taken from such an existing Psalm, representing a plea to YHWH from the protagonist, asking God to rescue him from hostile and malicious adversaries (who attack primarily through evil, slanderous speech). The opening verse 1 is also wholly traditional, utilizing language from many a prayer- and lament-Psalm, expressing the protagonist’s prayer to YHWH for deliverance, but also anticipating God’s response, referring to it as something that has already occurred. Such a trusting expectation reflects the righteous and devout character of the protagonist.

In the second section of the Psalm (vv. 5-7), the traditional language of lament is applied to a specific situation for the suffering people of God. It suggests a certain ‘homesickness’, as God’s people have been forced to spend time among hostile and godless ones, and (by implication) away from the righteous. An exilic setting is, almost certainly, implied, with the expression of lament anticipating (and foreshadowing) a return from exile. In this connection, there is also an implicit return to Jerusalem, the holy city, that is hoped for, however unspoken, by the protagonist.

Opening

Verse 1

“Unto YHWH, (here) in th(is) tight spot for me,
I called (out), and He answered.”

This initial couplet summarizes the essence of the prayer-Psalm, the prayer for deliverance. The protagonist is in distress (lit., a “narrow [place]” or a “tight [spot]”), pressed upon by hostile adversaries (cf. vv. 2-4 below). This noun rx^ occurs frequently in the Psalms, expressing a fundamental topos of the prayer- and lament-Psalms; here it is the feminine form hr*x*. The additional (paragogic) h– (ht*-) sufformative could conceivably preserve a case-ending (presum. accusative), which would make it an archaic feature (cf. Dahood, III, p. 195); possibly it was used by the poet as an archaizing detail, without any real significance, or was included to aid the meter (producing 8 syllables for the line).

In his distress, the protagonist calls out to YHWH. The very act of calling (praying) to YHWH indicates the righteous character of the protagonist, as does the fact the expects an answer from YHWH—viz., that God will deliver him out of his distress. Here, this is stated simply, in a matter-of-fact sequence: he called, and YHWH answered.

Section 1: Verses 2-4

Verse 2

“O YHWH, may you snatch (away) my soul
from (these) lips of falsehood,
from (this) tongue of deceit!”

Verses 2-4 constitute a lament, in which the protagonist makes his plea to YHWH, lamenting the suffering and affliction of his current condition. The language is traditional, utilizing the common rescue-verb lx^n` (“snatch out [of danger]”), as well as the nouns rq#v# (“falsehood”) and hY`m!r= (“deceit, treachery”) that characterize the wicked. Also traditional is the idiomatic pairing of “lips” and “tongue”, reflecting, in particular, the evil speech of the wicked. Quite often in the Psalms of lament, the attacks by the wicked against the righteous protagonist take the form of slanderous speech. Here, it is the aspect of falsehood and deceit that is emphasized, implying a certain treacherous quality.

Following the initial couplet, with its 3+2 meter, this verse is a 3+2+2 tricolon.

Verse 3

“What will He give (now) to you,
and what do (even) more to you,
(you) tongue of deceit?—”

In this verse, the protagonist anticipates YHWH’s answer to his prayer (cf. on verse 1, above). The implication is that, in rescuing him out of distress, YHWH will punish his wicked adversaries. There is a certain imprecatory quality to the taunting question posed by the protagonist, even though it addresses the wicked, rather being directed to YHWH as a request (i.e., curse-wish). It anticipates that YHWH will pay back (“give”) to the wicked adversaries (and with interest, vb [s^y`, Hiphil, “do [even] more”) for their evil and deceitful (treacherous) speech. Indeed, this evil-speaking is the fundamental characteristic of the wicked that is highlighted, with the wicked adversary being addressed by way of his tongue (v. 2, “[you] tongue of deceit!”).

This verse is another tricolon, rhythmically similar to that of v. 2.

Verse 4

“arrows of a mighty (one), sharp-toothed,
with red-hot coals of broom!”

Syntactically, this couplet (3+2) belongs with verse 3. However, it is not entirely clear whether it is meant to describe the character of the wicked adversaries’ tongue, or the punishment that will come to them (from YHWH) because of their tongue. Probably both aspects are intended, as is befitting of the elliptical language in v. 3; this would also reflect the lex talionis principle, whereby a person’s punishment is to be in like kind (and measure) to the crime committed (cf. 64:8). In other Psalms (11:2; 58:8[7]; 64:4), the “arrows” refer to the attacks by the wicked (cf. 57:5[4], where the sharpness of teeth and tongue is similarly emphasized), yet YHWH is also depicted as a warrior who shoots arrows that punish and slay the wicked (38:3[2]; 45:6[5]; 144:6). Indeed, the mythological image of the Divine warrior (associated especially with the storm), who shoots fiery arrows (of lightning, etc), was applied to YHWH in ancient Hebrew poetry (see, e.g., Ps 18:15[14]; 144:6). The idea of fiery arrows is alluded to here by the added image of hot (i.e., burning) coals in the second line; the line also alludes to the additional punishment (cf. verse 3b) that the protagonist anticipates (and hopes) will come upon his wicked adversaries.

Section 2: Verses 5-7

Verse 5

“Woe to me, that I have been residing (in) Mešek,
(that) I have dwelt among (the) tents of Qedar!”

Here in the second part of the Psalm, the focus of the lament shifts, as the wicked adversaries of the protagonist have become the surrounding nations, and the “tight spot” (v. 1) that he has been in refers to his dwelling among them. Almost certainly, the Exile is in view, with the protagonist representing the Israelite/Judean people collectively. The verb rWG indicates a person who lives as a resident alien among a foreign people, while the added use of /k^v* (“dwell”) in the second line suggests that the protagonist has been living among them for some time (a point specified in v. 6).

The ethno-geographic designations are apparently used to express different aspects of the idea that the protagonist has been far away from his own land and people. The term Ev#m# (Mešek) refers to a location in the far north, at the upper end of the world as it was generally known to Israel and Judah in the mid-1st millennium B.C. Ancient sources suggest that the territory was located to the north-east of Cilicia and Cappadocia, just south of the Black Sea; cf. the traditional ethno-genealogical point of reference in Gen 10:2; 1 Chron 1:5. They may be identified with the Muški people, referred to in Akkadian sources, known for their metal-working skill. The apparent hostility and violence associated with them here (vv. 6-7, below) accords with their inclusion among the hostile nations in the eschatological vision of Ezekiel 38-39 (38:2; 39:1); cf. also Ezek 27:13.

Qedar (rd*q@) serves as a general (and collective) reference to the Arab peoples residing to the east of Israel (cf. Gen 25:13; 1 Chron 1:29; Isa 42:11). As nomadic bedouin, they live in tents, which differs markedly from the more settled dwellings with which the protagonist would have been accustomed in the land of Israel/Judah. Like Mešek, the Qedarites are associated with violence in the Prophetic tradition (Isa 21:16-17; Jer 49:28-29). The pairing of Mešek and Qedar here may be influenced by the oracle in Ezek 27 (vv. 13, 21). Cf. Jer 2:10 for a similar use of Qedar to designate the surrounding nations, from a general geographic standpoint.

Verse 6

“(Too) much (the) dwelling of her, my soul,
with (the one) hating peace!”

In English idiom we would say, “Too long has my soul had her dwelling…!”; for the specific Hebrew idiom, cf. Deut 1:6. The exclamation specifies that the protagonist has been dwelling for some time as an alien among these far-off foreign (and hostile) peoples. More to the point, he feels how long this has been so, and he is more than tired of it. The implication is that he longs for a return to his own homeland and people. As noted above, the Exile is almost certainly being referenced here, though the lament need not be limited to that sole historical point of reference.

For readers attuned to the prophetic tradition, the references to Mešek and Qedar (cf. above) would have carried an implicit association with violence and hostility. This is made clear here by the designation of the people of these territories as “(ones) hating peace”, or “hater(s) of peace”. Some manuscripts and versions have a plural form of the construct verbal noun (participle), ya@n+oc, compared with the singular of the MT (an@oc). The MT can be retained, as a collective singular.

More problematic is the translation of the noun <olv* as “peace”, which is unnecessarily and inappropriately limiting, since “peace” is only one aspect of meaning for <olv*, which more properly denotes “fullness, wholeness, completion”. The rendering “peace” is still to be preferred here, in light of the specific contrast with “war” in v. 7. However, the expression “hater of <olv*” suggests, in additional to being violent and warlike, that a person (or people) is treacherous and willing to break agreements that have been made; indeed, such agreements are made for the sake of peace and security, and a breach or violation of them reflects a fundamentally violent and wicked character.

Verse 7

“I (myself am) of peace,
but when(ever) I speak,
they (are) for war!”

The protagonist admits that he himself is intent on peaceful relations, preserving the agreements that have been made, etc; however, his efforts to maintain this are rendered futile by the violent and hostile inclinations of the people. The emphatic personal pronoun yn]a& (“I”, that is, the protagonist) is contrasted with the similar pronoun hM*h@ (“they”). This another way of expressing the traditional contrast between the righteous and the wicked. The protagonist is among the righteous, representing the faithful/devout ones among the people of God; surrounding him are many wicked adversaries, which, here in vv. 5-7, are represented by the hostile surrounding nations (among which God’s people have been dispersed).

Metrically, this verse is a short/terse 2-beat (2+2+2) tricolon, corresponding with the 3-beat (3+3) bicolon in v. 5.

As examples of the ‘staircase’ or ‘step’ parallelism found in the Songs of Ascent (cf. the Introduction above), note the occurrence of the verb /k^v* (“dwell”) in v. 5b/6a, and the keyword <olv* (“peace”) in v. 6b/7a.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).
References marked “Allen” are to Leslie C. Allen, Psalms 101-150 (Revised edition), Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 21 (Zondervan: 2002/2014).

Sunday Psalm Studies: Psalm 119 (Conclusion)

Psalm 119, conclusion

Summary

Having now carefully examined all 22 stanzas of this great Psalm, it will be worth making certain summary points, in conclusion.

Let us begin with a reminder of the acrostic format and structure of the composition. The 22 stanzas correspond to the letters of the Hebrew alphabet. There are precisely eight verses in each stanza, and the first line of each verse begins with the corresponding letter of the acrostic-pattern. While the verse structure of the stanzas is consistent throughout, the meter is not. While a 3+2 couplet format tends to prevail, there are other 3+3 couplets, as well as occasional 2-beat couplets (2+2) and tricola (2+2+2); in a few instances, a different irregular meter (e.g., 2+3) is used.

As we have seen, this Psalm makes thorough use of features from the lament– and prayer-Psalms, but applies them within a distinctive context, influenced by Wisdom tradition, that emphasizes faithfulness to the covenant and Torah observance. The Psalm contains many petitions, drawn from these traditional genres, in which the protagonist requests help and protection from YHWH. He makes this sustained prayer for deliverance on the basis of his loyalty to the covenant (meaning his faithfulness in observing the Torah requirements, which represent the terms of the covenant, cf. below). The setting of the traditional prayer-for-deliverance implies that the protagonist is in distress, facing danger and affliction, which includes attacks by hostile adversaries. Our Psalm preserves many such details, but blends them together into the broader theme of covenant-loyalty and Torah-observance.

A particular aspect of this thematic application is the way in which the Psalmist, repeatedly, interprets the prayer for salvation/deliverance in terms of obtaining help from YHWH for the express purpose of remaining faithful to the covenant, fulfilling the Torah requirements with greater devotion, and with a better/deeper understanding of its precepts. In particular, the verb /yB! (“understand, discern”) features prominently in the petitions (vv. 27, 34, 73, 95, 100, 104, 125, 130, 144, 169), along with the verb dm^l* (“learn”, causative “make/help learn”, i.e., “teach”, vv. 7, 12, 26, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73, 99, 108, 124, 135, 171). This is the main significance of the “help” (i.e., vb rz~u*, vv. 86, 173, 175) that YHWH is asked (and expected) to provide. Even when traditional rescue-verbs are used (e.g., lx^n`, “snatch out [of danger]”), they refer primarily to the danger of going astray from the path of God. Similarly, the “salvation” (i.e., hu*Wvy+) that is repeatedly referenced signifies, principally, faithfulness to the covenant (and the Torah). This is also the significance of the requests for life—i.e., for YHWH to give (and preserve) the protagonist’s life; cf. the repeated use of the verb hy`j* in the petitions and affirmations (vv. 17, 25, 37, 40, 50, 77, 88, 93, 107, 116, 144, 149, 154, 156, 159, 175).

There are, of course, many references and allusions throughout the Psalm to adversaries that attack or threaten the protagonist. However, I regard these as reflective of the genre that the Psalmist has appropriated; they are not part of an authentic dramatic scenario that governs the Psalm. The main purpose of the adversary-references has to do with the Wisdom-orientation of the Psalm, which utilizes throughout the traditional contrast between the righteous and the wicked. On the surface, it may appear that the protagonist is requesting rescue and protection from certain hostile adversaries, but the principal danger facing him is the possibility of going astray from the path of God—that is, lapsing in his faithfulness to the covenant and Torah. The figure of the wicked adversary represents unfaithfulness (and thus disloyalty to YHWH), in marked contrast to the righteous (represented by the protagonist)—who is faithful and devoted, and longs only to become more so.

This dualistic righteous/wicked contrast is expressed in the Psalm through certain traditional juxtapositions—one of the most notable being the contrast between love (vb bh^a*) and hate (an`c*), cf. (love) vv. 47-48, 97, 113, 119, 127, 132, 140, 159, 163, 165-167, and (hate) vv. 104, 113, 128, 163, etc. Similarly, the protagonist loves the “rightness” (qd#x#) and truth (tm#a#) of YHWH and His Torah, while he hates all that is opposite—viz., the “falseness” (rq#v#) of the wicked, cf. vv. 29, 69, 78, 86, 104, 118, 128, 163. Another key contrast is between remembering the covenant and forgetting it. This is expressed primarily by the verb jk^v* (“forget”): the wicked forget (i.e., neglect and violate) the Torah of YHWH, while the righteous do not—cf. vv. 16, 61, 83, 93, 109, 139, 141, 153, 176; cf. also the verb rk^z` (“have/keep in mind, remember”) in vv. 49, 52, 55, while the idea of remembering is alluded to in many other verses (e.g., through the verb j^yc!, “ponder, meditate”, etc, vv. 15, 23, 27, 48, 78, 148).

Much of Psalm 119 is governing by the traditional ethical-religious motif of walking along the straight path—viz., that YHWH has laid out (in the covenant and Torah) for His people to follow. There are many such references, occurring in virtually every stanza, beginning with the initial beatitude in verse 1 (cp. Ps 1:1), where the key noun Er#D# (“path”, i.e., on which one treads) and the verb El^h* (“walk”) are both used. The noun Er#D# occurs 13 times in the Psalm, and is used (more or less interchangeably) with jr^a) (“pathway”, vv. 9, 15, 101, 104, 128); there are various other related terms and allusions as well.

The imagery is sustained over the length of most of the Psalm, utilizing a range of traditional metaphors, including the idea of going straight or having one’s feet set firmly (on the path)—i.e., so that one does not trip—and of being ever guided rightly, so that one stays on the path. This theme of guidance is expressed a number of ways, as, for example, with the idea of bending/turning (vb hf*n`) so as to remain on the right path (vv. 36, 112); there is also the famous reference in v. 105 to YHWH lighting up the path so that one can see it clearly (cf. also v. 130). The verb hf*n` can also be used in the negative sense of bending/turning away from the path (vv. 36, 51, 157), part of a broader motif of going astray—i.e., straying from the path, or going down other false side-paths. This key image is expressed by a number of terms and phrases, including the verb hg`v* (vv. 10, 21, 118). There are other dangers on the path, such as traps/snares set by the wicked (e.g., vv. 61, 85, 110); in addition, there are evil ‘side-paths’ (vv. 101, 104), and obstacles over which one might trip or stumble (vv. 133, 165, and cf. the context of vv. 105ff). The many references and allusions to attacks by the wicked should probably be understood within this framework of imagery—that is, of the wicked laying in wait along the path, looking for the opportunity to ambush and attack (cf. verse 95) the righteous.

It is clear from verse 1 that the “path” on which the protagonist walks is identified with the Torah. Actually, the path-image has various aspects of significance in relation to the Torah: (1) the Torah is the path, but (2) it is also the goal of the path, and, in addition (3) it also is the means for keeping one on the path. All three of these aspects are utilized, at numerous points, throughout the Psalm. Ultimately, however, remaining on the path, and thus walking straight and firmly upon it, means faithfully observing the precepts and regulations, etc., of the Torah. This ethical-religious dimension of Israelite covenant-loyalty is expressed primarily by two nearly-synonymous verbs:

This is thoroughly traditional terminology, found throughout the Scriptures, with a special emphasis in the Wisdom-tradition.

The term Torah is a simplified transliteration in English of the Hebrew hr*oT (tôrâ), which occurs in verse 1, and then 24 more times throughout the Psalm (vv. 18, 29, 34, 44, 51, 53, 55, 61, 70, 72, 77, 85, 92, 97, 109, 113, 126, 136, 142, 150, 153, 163, 165, 174). It is perhaps best translated “instruction”, denoting the direction and guidance (vb hr*y`) given by YHWH for His people, instructing them on what they must do (according to the covenant), and how they should conduct themselves. Collectively, the Torah is included under the broader reference to YHWH’s word. In the Psalm, the nouns rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”) and hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”) are used, more or less interchangeably, with little or no difference in meaning, occurring both in the singular and the plural. The precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah are certainly included among YHWH’s “sayings”, and are thus part of His word, but His word is not limited to the Torah. The noun rb*D* occurs 24 times in the Psalm (vv. 9, 16-17, 25, 28, 42-43, 49, 57, 65, 74, 81, 89, 101, 105, 107, 114, 130, 139, 147, 160, 161, 169), and hr*m=a! 19 times (vv. 11, 38, 41, 50, 58, 67, 76, 82, 103, 116, 123, 133, 140, 148, 154, 158, 162, 170, 172).

In addition, there seven other nouns used regularly throughout the Psalm to designate the specific words/sayings of YHWH in the Torah. They can be grouped as five distinct terms, which bring out specific attributes and characteristics, as well as distinct nuances of meaning. These have been discussed throughout the notes, and will be summarized here. For the most part, they occur in the plural, usually with a second person suffix (“your”) referring to YHWH. In virtually every stanza of the Psalm, one finds most (or all) of these terms used.

    • hd*u@ (“witness”), vv. 2, 22, 24, 46, 59, 79, 95, 119, 125, 138, 146, 152, 167-168; the related noun tWdu@ is also used, with no real difference in meaning, vv. 14, 31, 36, 88, 99, 111, 129, 144, 157. In this context, the plural denotes “things witnessed to”, i.e., by the parties to the covenant. This refers to the Torah regulations, etc, as representing the terms of the covenant, having been solemnly witnessed to by both God and the Israelite people.
    • dWQP!, vv. 4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93-94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173. The noun dWQP!, like the root dqp as a whole, can be difficult to translate, with much depending upon the context. The basic denotation is of something that a person is required/obligated to “take care of” (i.e., deal with, attend to). In the context of the covenant, the plural here refers to the duties in the Torah that the people are required to carry out. The plural would well be translated as “required duties”, but, for poetic concision, I have translated the suffixed plural regularly as “your charges” —viz., things that YHWH has charged the people to do.
    • hw`x=m! (“command”), vv. 6, 10, 19, 21, 32, 35, 47-48, 60, 66, 73, 86, 96, 98, 115, 127, 131, 143, 151, 166, 172, 176. This refers to the Torah regulations, etc, as things which YHWH as ordered or commanded (vb hw`x*) His people to do.
    • fP*v=m!, vv. 7, 13, 20, 30, 39, 43, 52, 62, 75, 84, 91, 102, 106, 108, 120-121, 132, 137, 149, 156, 160, 164, 175. The noun fP*v=m! is often translated “judgment”, but, in the context of the Torah, the plural is better rendered as “just (ruling)s”. That is, the Torah precepts and regulations, etc, represent decisions and determinations (i.e., rulings) made by YHWH in His role as Sovereign (King and Judge). The covenant is an agreement made between a subordinate (Israel) and a superior (YHWH).
    • qj), vv. 5, 8, 12, 23, 26, 33, 48, 54, 64, 68, 71, 80, 83, 112, 117-118, 124, 135, 145, 155, 171; the related noun hQ*j% is also used (with no difference in meaning) in v. 16. This term signifies an authoritative decision or decree that has been inscribed (or engraved). Like the noun fP*v=m! (above) it alludes to the Kingship of YHWH and His Sovereign authority. It also suggests the binding power of His decrees, with the implication that the authority of the covenant (and its terms, the Torah) will endure far into the distant future (<l*oul=).

A Final Note:

Christian Interpretation and Application of Ps 119

For Christians, it may be difficult to appreciate the heavy emphasis on Torah-observance in Psalm 119; this specific religious dimension of the Psalm also creates certain barriers for interpretation and application. Protestant readers are likely to focus on the repeated references to the word (rb*D*/hr*m=a!) of God, and to then interpret the Psalm from a sola Scriptura standpoint. Verses 11 and 105, for example, are often read in this way, being perhaps the two most frequently memorized verses of the Psalm.

However, such a Protestant reading of the Psalm, as emphasizing the need to devote oneself to the Scriptures, essentially obscures covenantal orientation of the work. The “path” on which the protagonist is walking must be understood in terms of the covenant established between YHWH and His people (Israel). Walking firmly on this path of God means faithfulness to the covenant, with the precepts, regulations, and required duties of the Torah representing the terms of the covenant (cf. the discussion above).

A more fruitful line of interpretation for Christians is to apply this covenant-language, and its manner of expression, in relation to the new covenant. In place of the Torah regulations, the terms of the new covenant, for believers in Christ, are now realized through trust in Jesus, which leads to our union with him and the abiding presence of the Spirit. The external witness (cf. on hd*u@ above) of the old covenant (in the Torah), is now experienced as an internal witness through the Spirit (cf. John 15:26; Rom 8:16; Heb 10:15; 1 Jn 5:6-7).  As Paul frames the matter, in 2 Cor 3:6ff, the decrees of the old covenant, originally inscribed in stone (cf. on the noun qj) above), have been replaced by the writing of the Spirit in the heart of the believer. Insofar as one walks about in the Spirit, being guided and directed by the Spirit (recall the literal meaning of the word hr*oT noted above), the Law of God is fulfilled, without recourse to, or dependence upon, a written code. For this new Christian application of the path-walking idiom, see esp. Gal 5:16ff; Rom 8:4; 1 Jn 1:6-7.

All the “commands” (cf. above on the term hw`x=m!) of the Torah are now encompassed under a single command—that is, the so-called ‘love-command’, the command to love (Jn 13:34-35, etc; Rom 13:8-10; Gal 5:13-14; James 2:8; cf. Mark 12:30-31 par). Actually, this is presented as a dual-command, particularly within the Johannine tradition: (i) to trust in Jesus (as the Messiah and Son of God), and (ii) to show love to other believers, following the example of Jesus himself; cf. 1 John 3:23, and throughout the letter of 1 John. In the Johannine Gospel, the command to trust in Jesus is expressed in the traditional language of guarding and keeping watch over his word (8:51ff; 14:15, 21ff; 15:10, 20; and cf. 1 Jn 2:3-5; 3:22ff; 5:3). This is the very language used throughout Psalm 119 (cf. on the corresponding verbs rm^v* and rx^n` above). In the Johannine message (and its theology), the “word” (lo/go$, rh=ma) of Jesus refers primarily to the truth regarding his self-identity—viz., as the Son of God sent from heaven by God the Father, and all that this entails. Of course, this same word also encompasses the second aspect of the dual-command: the directive he has given, to show love to fellow believers, according to his own example.

The use of the term “command”, in this regard, is not especially accurate. The Greek word e)ntolh/, particularly as it is used in the Johannine writings, is better translated as “duty” —that is a duty placed upon believers, which they/we are obligated to fulfill. This corresponds precisely with the Hebrew term dWQP! as it is used in the Psalm (cf. above).

Thus, there is a new covenant corollary to nearly every component of the covenant-idiom utilized in Psalm 119. The Christian reader can—and should—interpret and apply the Psalm along these lines. Such an interpretation, of course, must be viewed as secondary, and is not to serve as a substitute for careful exegetical and poetic study of the composition. For, as with every piece of Scripture, the text must be understood and explained, first and foremost, in its original grammatical and historical-cultural context.

January 19: Psalm 119:169-176

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 21 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 22: verses 169-176

t
Verse 169

“Let come near [br^q=T!] my ringing (cry) before your face,
O YHWH—
according to your word, give me understanding!”

Again, in this final stanza, the conventions of the prayer-for-deliverance genre are utilized. The protagonist presents a plea to YHWH, asking that his “ringing cry” (hN`r!), i.e., for help, might “come near” (vb br^q*) to God. The presentation of this prayer, right before the face of YHWH, implies that He will respond favorably and will answer the cry for help. As throughout the Psalm, the protagonist’s appeal is based on his loyalty to YHWH, his faithfulness to the covenant (and the Torah). This is typical of the prayer-Psalms; and the protagonist’s faithfulness has been expressed in a number of different ways in this particular Psalm. At the conclusion of the previous stanza (v. 168), the declaration was made by the protagonist that his loyalty is visible “in front of” YHWH, meaning that God can well see and recognize that he has been faithful and loyal, walking straight and firm upon the path.

The protagonist specifically asks that YHWH would give him understanding (vb /yB!, Hiphil). This represents the principal goal and purpose of the petitions throughout the Psalm, as we have discussed. The request is for help (from YHWH) in being ever more devoted to the covenant, so as to fulfill the required duties of the Torah faithfully, and with a better/deeper understanding of its precepts. In this context, the qualifying expression “according to your word” has several layers of meaning: (1) understanding of the Torah (as God’s word); (2) such understanding constitutes a portion of the blessing(s) promised by YHWH in the Torah; (3) understanding comes through the creative and life-giving (saving) power of God’s word. The noun rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”) has been used repeatedly—both in the singular and the plural—throughout the Psalm; a complete list of occurrences (along with the parallel term hr*m=a! [“saying, thing said”]) will be provided in the Summary. For similar occurrences of the verb /yB! (“understand, discern”) earlier in the Psalm, cf. vv. 27, 34, 73, 95, 100, 104, 125, 130, 144.

Metrically, this verse is irregular, comprised of three lines. It could be parsed as a 2-beat (2+2+2) tricolon; however, I follow Dahood (III, p. 193) in dividing the verse chiastically, by syllable count (8:2:8), with the Divine name (YHWH) at the center. Note the overall chiasm:

    • “Let my cry come near
      • before your face
        • O YHWH—
      • according to your word
    • give me understanding”

A similar structure prevails in v. 149 (cf. the discussion on Stanza 19); and see below on v. 175.

Verse 170

“Let come [aobT*] my request for favor before your face—
according to your saying, snatch me away!”

This couplet repeats the thought expressed in v. 169; indeed, if one were to leave out the Divine name at the center of that verse (cf. above), the two 3+2 couplets would be precisely parallel:

    • Let come near | my cry (for help) | before your face
      Let come | my request for favor | before your face
    • according to your word | give me understanding
      according to your saying | snatch me away

This parallelism demonstrates clearly how the prayer-Psalm format has been utilized by the author and applied to the distinctive context of Ps 119. The traditional prayer-for-deliverance petition is reflected here in the second couplet, with the use of the verb lx^n` (“snatch away”, i.e., out of danger); this verb occurs frequently in the Psalms (46 times, including earlier in v. 43). As noted above, the noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”) is used interchangeably with rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”, v. 169), with virtually no difference in meaning.

The 3+2 couplet is the dominant meter of this Psalm, occurring again in vv. 171, 173-175 of this stanza.

Verse 171

“May they pour forth [hn`u=B^T*], my lips, praise (to you),
when you help me to learn your decrees!”

Anticipating YHWH’s answer to his prayer (v. 169f), the protagonist effectively promises to give praise to God. The dramatic image of his lips “pouring/gushing forth” (vb ub^n`, Hiphil) words/songs of praise, is appropriate to the creative impulse of a poet-composer like the Psalmist (cf. Ps 145:7). The particle yK! at the beginning of the second line could be translated “for” or “because”; however, I have chosen to render it from the standpoint of the anticipated answer to the protagonist’s prayer (“when…”). The verb dm^l* (“learn”) in the Piel has a certain causative force (“make [one] to learn”, i.e., “teach”); in the context of the Psalm, the emphasis is on YHWH helping the protagonist to learn, and to better understand (v. 169), His Torah. The noun qh) (along with hQ*j%), “inscribed (decree)”, has been used regularly (in the plural) as one of the key terms for the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah; a full list of occurrences will be given in the Summary.

The gloss “to you” in my translation of the first line is a natural addition, which also aids the rhythm of the translation; it should be noted that the corresponding Hebrew (hkl) occurs at that position in the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa, and doubtless represents a scribal addition, even as it does in my translation above.

Verse 172

“May it sing [/u^T*], my tongue, (praise of) your saying(s),
that all your commands are (made in) rightness!”

Just as v. 170 repeated v. 169, so the couplet here echoes the prior v. 171 (above). The exhortation for the protagonist’s tongue to sing praise (vb hn`u* IV) clearly is parallel to his lips “pouring out” praise. Similarly, the praise to YHWH is made because of His words (“sayings”)—particularly as they are expressed in the Torah. Like the noun qj) (v. 171), hw`x=m! (“command”) is one of the regular terms designating the Torah regulations, etc. Both of these terms allude to YHWH’s role as Sovereign—i.e., one who gives commands/orders and establishes binding decrees—in the context of the covenant. All such commands are made in “rightness” (qd#x#), reflecting the very right (and righteous) character of YHWH Himself; on the use of this noun as an essential attribute of God (and His Torah), cf. earlier in vv. 7, 62, 75, 106, 121, 123, 138, 142, 144, 160, 164.

Metrically, this verse is a 3+3 couplet, varying slightly from the 3+2 meter elsewhere in vv. 171-175.

Verse 173

“May it be [yh!T=], your hand, (there) to give help to me,
for I have chosen (to fulfill) your charges.”

This couplet returns to the petition-format of vv. 169-170 (cf. above), as the protagonist asks YHWH (i.e., His “hand”) to give help (vb rz~u*) to him. As noted above (on v. 169), in the context of Ps 119, this “help” specifically involves keeping the required duties of the Torah—viz., that the protagonist will be enabled to fulfill the duties and regulations ever more faithfully, with greater devotion and understanding. He asks for this because he has (already) been faithful to the covenant, fulfilling—and desiring to fulfill—the Torah. This heart-felt intention toward faithfulness is expressed here by the verb rj^B* (“choose”, see earlier in v. 30)—i.e., he has chosen the duties of the Torah, as is determined to keep them. The regular Torah-term dWQP! particularly captures this aspect of a required duty or obligation, with the suffixed plural form being translated “your charges”; for additional discussion, and a full list of the occurrences, cf. the upcoming Summary.

Verse 174

“I have longed [yT!b=a^T*] for your salvation,
O YHWH,
and your instruction (is ever) my delight!”

This couplet especially captures the manner in which the Psalmist adapts the prayer-for-deliverance genre to the distinctive context of Torah observance. To long for (vb ba^T* + l=) salvation from YHWH reflects the traditional prayer for deliverance (i.e., out of distress and affliction); yet here, in the context of the Psalm, it also refers to the righteous protagonist’s longing for YHWH and His Torah (as expressed quite clearly in line 2). Indeed, within this setting, “salvation” itself means, primarily, the ability to be ever more faithful to the Torah, with a better/greater understanding of its precepts. This application of the noun u^v%u=v^ (“delight”) occurred earlier in vv. 24, 77, 92, 143, along with the related verb uu^v* (II) in vv. 16, 47, 70.

This verse is a 3+2 couplet; however, it is best to present it in a chiastic 2+1+2 structure, with the Divine name YHWH at the center (cf. Dahood, III, p. 193, and above on v. 169). Note the chiastic parallelism:

    • “I have longed
      • for your salvation
        • O YHWH
      • and your instruction
    • is my delight”
Verse 175

“(So) let live [yj!T=] my soul, that it might praise you,
and your just (ruling)s, may they help me!”

Ironically, the help that YHWH gives, which enables the protagonist to observe the Torah more faithfully, comes from the Torah itself. This represents an added twist on the petition, which otherwise echoes the request made in v. 173 (cf. above); note the similar use of the verb rz~u* (“[give] help”). The protagonist effectively promises that, if/when YHWH brings salvation to him, he will give praise (to God) in response. Yet, in keeping with the traditional sentiment of the prayer- and lament-Psalms, the protagonist can only give praise to YHWH if his soul is still alive (i.e., has been saved/rescued out of danger by YHWH). Of course, as noted, in the ethical-religious context of this Psalm, ‘salvation’ principally signifies faithfulness to the covenant, and the effective observance of the Torah. For the use of the verb hy`j* (“live”), in this same context earlier in the Psalm, see vv. 17, 25, 37, 40, 50, 77, 88, 93, 107, 116, 144, 149, 154, 156, 159.

The noun fP*v=m!, translated as “just (ruling)”, is another of the recurring words for the Torah precepts and regulations, etc; cf. the Summary. While the MT technically reads a singular form, it probably should be parsed as a plural, such as we find explicitly in the original reading of the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa*. I have rendered it as a plural in my translation.

Verse 176

“(If) I go astray [yt!yu!T*], like a lost sheep,
(please) seek out your servant—
for your commands I have not forgotten.”

The perfect form of the initial verb (hu*T*, “go astray”) could be rendered as an ordinary past tense (“I have gone astray”, cf. the thought expressed in v. 67 [Stanza 9]); however, given the prayer/petition formulation in every other verse of this stanza, rendering the first line as a conditional clause seems preferable (cf. Dahood, III, p. 193): “If I (should) go astray…”. This continues the important theme of requesting help from YHWH in order to remain faithful to the covenant. The protagonist wishes never to go astray from the path YHWH has laid out for His people. It is proper that the Psalm concludes with this thematic motif (viz., of walking on the path of God). Here the verb hu*T* is used for the idea of straying from the path (cf. also in v. 110); earlier in the Psalm, other verbs such as hg~v* (vv. 10, 21, 118) and hf*n` (“bend/turn [away from]”, vv. 51, 157) were used for the same purpose.

If the protagonist should ever, unintentionally, stray from the path, he asks that YHWH would seek him out (vb vq^B*), as if he were a sheep that has gotten lost (vb db^a*); cf. Ezek 34:10-11ff. The figurative image of YHWH as a shepherd, with His people as a flock of sheep, is traditional, occurring in numerous Scripture passages, and in the Psalms (most notably, the famous Ps 23 [cf. the earlier study]). Jesus, of course, made memorable use of this imagery in the Gospels (John 10:1-18; Lk 15:3-7; Matt 18:12-14; cf. also Mk 6:34 par; Matt 10:6). The implication is that YHWH (the Shepherd) will put the protagonist (the sheep) back squarely on the path.

An important point is that, even if he should temporarily go astray, still the protagonist declares that he has not forgotten the commands of YHWH (in the Torah); that is, any temporary straying from the path would not be the result of faithlessness or willful neglect. On this theme of not forgetting (vb jk^v*) the Torah (i.e., remembering to guard/keep it), cf. earlier in vv. 16, 61, 83, 93, 109, 141, 153; by contrast, the wicked, those who are unfaithful to the covenant (and thus disloyal to YHWH), do forget (i.e., are neglectful of and violate) His Torah, v. 139.

The noun fP*v=m! (“command”, plur.) is used again (see v. 172) to designate the Torah requirements, etc; however, the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa here has instead the regular term hd*u@ (“witness”, plur.), which otherwise does not occur in this stanza (cf. the final couplet of St. 21, v. 168).

Metrically, this final verse is a 2-beat (2+2+2) tricolon.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).

January 17: Psalm 119:161-168

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 20 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 21: verses 161-168

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Verse 161

“(The) ‘princes’ [<yr!c*] have pursued me gratuitously,
yet (it is) from your word (that) my heart trembles.”

Mention has been made repeatedly of the lament– and prayer-Psalm features that occur in many of the stanzas. The petitions regularly reflect a prayer for deliverance, as the protagonist asks YHWH to rescue him from the distress that he is experiencing. As is often the case in the Psalms of lament, this distress stems, in large part, from oppressive attacks made by wicked adversaries. The initial couplet here presents this basic scenario clearly enough, the protagonist mentioning that the wicked have pursued him, with evil/hostile intent, and with no just cause. This latter qualification is expressed by the adverb <N`j!, which is derived from the verbal root /nj (“show favor”), used (in its positive sense, i.e., favor shown by YHWH) earlier in the Psalm (vv. 29, 58, 132). The adverb <N`j! would then denote something done as a favor (i.e., at no cost); here, however, the adverb has a negative meaning—viz., referring to attacks that are made with no cause (i.e., for no good reason).

The wicked adversaries of the protagonist are here designated by the plural <yr!c*, usually translated “princes”, and which was used earlier in v. 23, in the same context. The noun rc^ is being used, we may assume, in a very general way, as referring to prominent people in society. It could also be that an authoritative (judicial) setting is implied, with slanderous charges being brought against the protagonist. Whether or not Dahood’s explanation of <yr!c* here (III, p. 176, on v. 23) is valid, he is surely correct in seeing these ‘princes’ as representing the wicked. These wicked ‘princes’ pursue the protagonist; that is, they pursue with hostile (and evil) intent, looking to oppress and persecute the righteous. The same verb ([d^r*) was used earlier in vv. 84, 86, 150, 157.

Throughout the Psalm, the righteous and wicked are contrasted, in a traditional manner typical of Wisdom tradition, and occurring with great frequency in many other Psalms. In keeping with the Torah-emphasis, the wicked are described as those who are unfaithful to the covenant, neglecting and violating the regulations, etc, of the Torah. By marked contrast, the protagonist (as one of the righteous) is utterly devoted to the covenant and its Torah. Often, it is in the second line of the couplet that the protagonist’s faithfulness is thus affirmed; and, in the verses reflecting lament features, this faithfulness is juxtaposed with the characteristic behavior of the wicked. So we find the formulation here, as he declares that it is YHWH’s word (rb*D*) that he fears, and not the hostile attacks by his adversaries.

As I have discussed, there is a three-fold significance to the term rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”) as it is used in the Psalm (along with the parallel hr*m=a!, “saying, thing said”); it can refer: (i) to the precepts and regulations of the Torah (which represent the terms of the covenant), (ii) to the promises made by YHWH in the Torah (i.e., of blessing and protection for those who are faithful to the covenant), and (iii) to the Sovereign creative and life-giving power of God’s word, generally. The singular and plural of rb*D* (and hr*m=a!) are used, more or less interchangeably, throughout the Psalm, and this has caused some confusion for copyists (i.e., in the manuscripts and ancient versions). We see this also here in the Masoretic text, as the Kethib has a plural form (“from your words”), but is vocalized (Qere) as a singular (“from your word”). Since I believe that there is a definite allusion here to the role of YHWH’s word in rendering judgment (that is, against the wicked, and on behalf of the righteous), the singular seems more appropriate to this context (on which, cf. verse 160 in the previous stanza).

The protagonist fears this word of judgment, even as he fears YHWH Himself; on the one hand, this is a right (and righteous) reverence toward YHWH, showing Him the honor that He is due, and yet a genuine fear—toward the supreme power and holiness of God—is also present. The verb used here is dj^P*, which I render in the visceral sense of “tremble”; the related noun dj^P^ occurred earlier in v. 120. As in that earlier reference, the root is used to express the fear/reverence shown by the righteous toward YHWH; Dahood’s alternative explanation of the line (III, p. 192f) seems as unnecessary as it is unconvincing. The principal way that the protagonist reveres God, showing Him the proper fear, is by observing the precepts and duties of the Torah, with total devotion, in faithfulness to the covenant.

Metrically, this verse is a 3+3 couplet, which is the secondary meter that most often is used, as a complement to the primary 3+2 meter. The stanza concludes (vv. 167-168) with similar 3+3 couplets.

Verse 162

“(Shak)ing with joy [cc*] (am) I over your saying(s),
like (a soldier) finding much plunder!”

The Psalmist plays on the conceptual portrait in v. 161, reversing the significance of the prior lines. If the protagonist was trembling with fear at YHWH’s word in v. 161b, now he is shaking with joy. A verbal adjective (participle) is used, from the root cWc (“rejoice, have/find joy”); cf. earlier in v. 14. In v. 161a, the wicked are running after (pursuing) the righteous, looking to do evil; here, the righteous is also running, but his movement is toward the Torah. The implicit violence of the imagery (i.e., hostile pursuers) is echoed here by the idea of a soldier (following some great conflict) finding wealth that he can plunder (llv). That the Torah represents exceptional riches was indicated earlier in the Psalm, particularly by the traditional (Wisdom) comparisons with silver and gold (vv. 72, 127). The Qumran manuscript 11QPsa has the preposition /m! (instead of K=) on the participle (ax@om, “[one] finding”), presumably being used in the comparative sense (“more than [one] finding much plunder”), which would be in keeping with the comparison in the earlier references.

On the use of the noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”), in parallel with rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”), cf. above. Here the reference is primarily to the precepts and regulations of the Torah (more clearly so than in v. 161); the singular can be rendered as a collective plural (i.e., “sayings”).

This verse is a 3+2 couplet, which, as noted above, is the dominant meter of the Psalm; in this stanza, cf. also in vv. 163-164, 166.

Verse 163

“(All) falseness [rq#v#] I do hate and abhor,
(but) your instruction I do love.”

The contrast between the righteous and the wicked, taken externally (viz., as different groups of people), now shifts to an internal contrast—that is, within the heart (cf. v. 161b) of the protagonist. He hates what is false (i.e., wickedness, unfaithfulness), but he loves what is true (i.e., good, faithful, and trustworthy)—namely the instruction (hr*oT, Torah) of YHWH. The characteristic truthfulness of the Torah (as of YHWH Himself) is reflected by the earlier use of the nouns tm#a# and hn`Wma$ (lit. “firmness”) in the Psalm (cf., most recently, in v. 160). By contrast, “falseness” (rq#v#) is characteristic of the wicked, who are disloyal to the covenant with YHWH, and who neglect and violate the Torah; cf. the use of this term earlier in vv. 29, 69, 78, 86, 104, 118, 128. On the traditional love-hate idiom, see vv. 47-48, 97, 104, 113, 119, 127-128, 132, 140, 159.

The contrast is implicit in the MT, but in the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa it is made explicit with the initial w-conjunction in the second line (i.e., “but…”, “yet..”, or “while…”).

Verse 164

“Seven (times) [ub^v#] in the day I give you praise,
over (the) just (decree)s of your rightness!”

The protagonist’s reverence toward YHWH (cf. on v. 161, above) is directly specifically toward His word(s), as expressed primarily by the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah. He specifically gives praise (vb ll^h*) to YHWH (cf. the motif of rejoicing in v. 162) over His word. The noun fP*v=m!, typically in the plural, is one of the regular terms used in the Psalm to designate the Torah precepts, et al. In this context, I have rendered it as “just (ruling)s”, i.e., made by YHWH in His role as Sovereign; yet, it can also refer to the “judgment(s)” made, viz., against the wicked and on behalf of the righteous (cf. above and on v. 160 in the previous stanza). The Torah, indeed, records such judgments (e.g., the blessings and curses in Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28). See the upcoming Summary for a full listing of the occurrences of fP*v=m! in the Psalm.

That the protagonist praises YHWH seven times a day is another indication of his constant and continual devotion, which lasts all through the day (and the night); cf. earlier in vv. 147-148, also vv. 55, 62. The number seven traditionally symbolizes completeness.

Verse 165

“Fullness [<olv*] most (abundant)
to (those) loving your instruction—
and (let) there not be for them (any) stumbling!”

I parse this verse as an irregular 2+2+3 tricolon. The first two lines represent a wish for blessing (to the righteous) from YHWH. This is expressed in a general way by the term <olv* (“completeness, fullness, wholeness”), which can specifically connote the ideals of health, security, peace, and so forth. The appeal may be based upon the promised blessings in the Torah (cf. above) for those who are faithful to the covenant. These faithful/righteous ones are designated as those who “love” (vb bh^a*) the Torah of YHWH. The use of the participle (as a verbal adjective) indicates the regular/characteristic behavior and mindset of the righteous. Cf. above (v. 163), on this characteristic of “love” for YHWH and His word, as also for the opposing “hate” toward all that is false and faithless.

Throughout the Psalm, in most of the earlier stanzas, the theme of walking on the path of God has been prevalent; cf. most recently, in v. 133. This theme, which was largely absent from Stanzas 18-20, makes its reappearance here, with the motif of stumbling (lvk). The protagonist prays to YHWH that, for the righteous, there might be no cause for stumbling (lovk=m!) while they walk on the path. Earlier in the Psalm, the protagonist repeatedly asked YHWH for help in remaining ever faithful to the covenant, following the duties of the Torah with greater devotion, and with better understanding of its precepts. Now, this same kind of petition is being extended to all of the righteous/faithful ones, collectively, everywhere. This is simply a reflection of the protagonist as an ideal representative of the people of God—viz., for all those who earnestly seek to be faithful to the covenant.

Verse 166

“I have waited [yT!r=B^c!] for your salvation, O YHWH
and your commands (indeed) I have done.”

The first line could also be rendered “I have watched…”, since the verb rb^c* implies an expectant examination of something, combining both semantic aspects of watching (closely) and waiting. Elsewhere in the Psalm, this theme of watching/waiting—viz., for YHWH to answer the protagonist’s prayer—is expressed by the verb lj^y` (vv. 43, 49, 74, 81, 114, 147). The answer (from YHWH) to the protagonist’s prayer means salvation for him. As we have seen, Psalm 119 utilizes important elements and thematic motifs from the prayer-for-deliverance Psalm-genre, but applies them within a distinctive context, emphasizing Torah observance, strongly influenced by Wisdom-tradition.

With regard to the idea of salvation (hu*Wvy+), we may delineate three levels (or aspects) of significance. First, there is the traditional setting from the lament- and prayer-Psalms—that is, the prayer is for deliverance from the distress and affliction that the protagonist is experiencing, which includes hostile attacks by wicked adversaries. Second, the goal of the petitions tends to focus on the protagonist’s desire to remain (ever more) faithful to the covenant and the Torah; “salvation”, in this context, means help from YHWH, allowing him to remain firmly set on the path, with nothing (and no one) able to cause him to stumble or go astray. Finally, there is the ultimate goal of salvation (blessedness in the afterlife, with YHWH), which will come to those who remain faithful to the covenant. All of the promises (of blessing) in the Torah—prosperity, health, long-life, protection from enemies and disease, etc—point in this direction.

In the second line, the protagonist, as he/she often does throughout the Psalm, declares his/her faithfulness to the Torah. Here the precepts and regulations of the Torah are designated by one of the regular terms, the suffixed plural of hw`x=m! (“command”), “your commands”, i.e., the things that YHWH has ordered/commanded for His people in the Torah. For all of the occurrences of this term, see the list in the upcoming Summary.

Verse 167

“Has guarded [hr*m=v*] my soul (all of) your witness—
indeed, I love them most (deeply)!”

As in vv. 163 and 165 (cf. above), the protagonist expresses his devotion to YHWH (and His Torah) in terms of love (vb bh^a*). Also traditional is the use of the verb rm^v* (“guard”) which occurs frequently in the Psalm (along with the synonymous rx^n`, “keep watch [over]”); cf. most recently, v. 158 in the prior stanza. The reference is to observing the Torah precepts and regulations, fulfilling its required duties, etc. On this watching motif, see v. 166 (above). The noun hd*u@ (“witness”, along with tWdu@) is one of the regular terms used for the Torah regulations, etc; in this context it signifies the terms of the covenant, which have been solemnly witnessed to by both God and the people. For a complete list of occurrences, see the upcoming Summary. As indicated by the second line (“I love them…”), the suffixed noun is in the plural; but, for poetic concision, I have been translating it as a collective singular (“your witness”).

In my translation above, I treat the initial w-conjunction of the second line as emphatic (i.e., “indeed…”), reinforced by the final adverb da)m= (“[very] much”).

Verse 168

“(Yes,) I have guarded [yT!r=m^v*] your charges and your witness—
for (you see) all my paths (there) in front of you.”

The protagonist repeats his declaration of loyalty to the covenant (and the Torah), adding to the suffixed plural of hd*u@ (“witness”), the noun dWQP!, which is yet another of the regular terms for the required duties of the Torah; I have translated the suffixed plural as “your charges”. Also the verb rm^v* (“guard”) is repeated from v. 167 (see above).

The final affirmation of faithfulness utilizes the path/walking metaphor from earlier in the Psalm (cf. verse 165 above). While the noun Er#D# in the singular designates the path of God—viz., the path that YHWH has laid out for His people to follow (according to the covenant and its Torah)—it can also refer to the characteristic behavior of the person (in this case, the protagonist). Here, the plural (“paths”) makes this regular, habitual aspect of the protagonist’s ‘walk’ particularly clear (“all my paths”). Cf. verses 5, 26; in verse 3, the plural refers to the ways of YHWH (i.e., that He has established, in the Torah).

To say that the protagonist’s paths are “in front of” (dg#n#) God suggests several aspects of meaning: (1) it alludes to his faithfulness, that he is firmly on the path of God (and which leads to God); (2) it affirms that YHWH can see all that the protagonist does, how he walks faithfully on the path; and (3) it suggests YHWH’s presence, and that He will be there to guide and assist the protagonist (His loyal/devoted servant) on the path.

The twenty-second (and final) stanza (vv. 169-176) will be discussed in the next note.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).

January 12: Psalm 119:153-160

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 19 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 20: verses 153-160

r
Verse 153

“See [ha@r=] (now) my affliction, and pull me out (of it)—
for your instruction I have not forgotten.

This stanza, like many of the others, employs certain features of the lament– and prayer-Psalms. The protagonist asks YHWH to see the distress he is in, with the presumption that, if God sees it, He will surely act to help His faithful servant. Similarly, in the previous stanza, the request was for YHWH to hear his cry for help. These petition formulae are traditional, and occur frequently in the Psalms (for the seeing motif, note 9:14[13]; 31:8[7]; 35:17; 59:5[4]; 80:15[14]). They involve a prayer for deliverance—viz., the protagonist asks YHWH to protect and rescue him (from danger) in the time of his distress. The verb used is lx^j* (Piel), which, in this context, means to pull someone out of danger, i.e., to rescue them—this is just one of the regular rescue/deliverance verbs used in the Psalms (cf. 6:5[4]; 7:5[4]; 18:20[19]; 34:8[7]; 50:15; 60:7[5]; 81:8[7]; 91:15; 108:7[6]; 116:8). The protagonist’s distress, or “affliction”, is indicated by the noun yn]u( a term which, along with the related adjective (yn]u*), occurs frequently in the Psalms (cf. here, earlier in vv. 50, 92, and the verb hn`u* [II] in vv. 67, 71, 75, 107). It denotes a condition of being bent (or pressed) down, and can specifically refer to oppression—viz., at the hands of wicked adversaries, as indicated in v. 157 (and implied in v. 155, cf. below).

The protagonist makes his appeal to YHWH on the basis of the covenant—that is, his faithfulness to the Torah. This is typical of the petitions in the prayer-Psalms, and certainly here in Ps 119, with its consistent focus on the Torah. In this instance, faithfulness is expressed in terms of “not forgetting” (vb jk^v*), i.e., remembering, all the precepts and regulations of the Torah; cf. earlier in vv. 16, 61, 83, 93, 109, 139, 141. In contrast to the righteous, the wicked have forgotten the Torah (i.e., they neglect and violate it); on this contrastive theme in the current stanza, cf. the allusion in v. 155.

Metrically, this verse is a 3+2 couplet, which is the dominant meter of the Psalm. This particular stanza contains two interlocking sets of metrical couplets—with 3+2 here and in vv. 155-157, and then 3+3 in vv. 154 and 158-160.

Verse 154

“May you fight [hb*yr!] (the) fight for me, and redeem me—
(according) to your word, preserve my life!”

The deliverance requested by the protagonist involves being rescuing from life-threatening danger—implied by the use of the verb hy`j* in the Piel, “bring/give life”, in the sense of “preserve life”; on the occurrence of this verb in the earlier petitions, cf. vv. 17, 25, 37, 40, 50, 77, 88, 93, 107, 116, 144, 149. The association of life with the word of YHWH, in this Psalm, has a three-fold significance: (1) the Torah precepts and regulations, which ensure life for those who faithfully observe them; (2) the promises given by YHWH (in the Torah) of blessing and protection (including health and long-life, etc), for those who are faithful to the covenant; and (3) the live-giving and creative power of the word of God, in a general sense, by which He brings salvation (and life) to the faithful. Here “word” translates the noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”), which is used interchangeably throughout the Psalm with rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”).

The deliverance to be provided by YHWH is expressed by the verb la^G`, which properly refers to the “redemption” that is provided for a person in need (i.e., in debt, etc) by a qualifying near-relative. It came to be used in a more general sense, for any act of rescue (out of danger, trouble, etc), particularly in this theological context, where it is YHWH who acts on behalf of His people. The terminology could suggest a certain familial bond between YHWH and the faithful ones of His people. For other occurrences in the Psalms, cf. 19:15[14]; 69:19[18]; 72:14; 74:2; 77:16[15]; 78:35; 103:4; 106:10; 107:2.

As noted above, the meter of this couplet is 3+3 (also in vv. 158-160).

Verse 155

“(But let) be far [qojr*] from (the) wicked (your) salvation,
because they do not search after your decrees!”

The traditional contrast between the righteous and the wicked, so frequent in the Psalms, and noted above, is highlighted here. While the righteous (i.e., the protagonist) are faithful to the “decrees” of YHWH (in the Torah), the wicked are not. Being neglectful of the precepts of the Torah, and violating the regulations, the wicked certainly do not “search after” (vb vr^d*) them, the way that the righteous do; cf. vv. 2, 10, 45, 94. While the protagonist asks for salvation from YHWH, he simultaneously wishes that it be kept “far away” (qjr) from the wicked. The implication is that he is asking for deliverance out of the hands of wicked adversaries, who are afflicting and oppressing him (cf. verse 157). This means that there can be no help or rescue from YHWH on behalf of the adversaries.

This near-far contrastive idiom was featured in the previous stanza, including specific use of the root qjr in v. 150, where it is stated that the wicked “are far away” from the Torah. Now, appropriately enough, the protagonist prays (in something of an imprecatory curse-wish), that salvation be kept “far away” from them. I follow Dahood (III, p. 191) in parsing qojr* as a verbal adjective (infinitive), functioning like an imperative: i.e., “(Let it) be far away…!”

The noun qj) (plur., also hQj%), denoting something inscribed (such as a decree made by a ruler), occurs regularly in the Psalm (21 times) as a term designating the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah.

Verse 156

“Your deep love [;ym#j&r^] (is so) much indeed, O YHWH—
according to your just (ruling)s, grant me life!”

The petition in the second line, like that of v. 154 (see above), uses a Piel imperative of the verb hy`j*, “give/bring life”. In the earlier petition, I translated this as “preserve life”; here, I feel it is appropriate to broaden the context of the request, rendering it as “grant life”. In both instances (as elsewhere in the Psalm), the context is the covenant. The protagonist makes his request on the basis of his faithfulness to the covenant-bond. He has been faithful to the precepts and regulations of the Torah (i.e., the terms of the covenant), and so can expect to receive the blessings and protection promised by YHWH in the Torah. The noun fP*v=m! (in the plural) is another of the regular terms in the Psalm for the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah. I have translated it as “just (ruling)s”, i.e., made and established by YHWH, as the Sovereign. An appeal for justice (cf. verse 154 above, with its use of the root byr!, viz., a “fight”, in a legal sense) is made on the basis of YHWH’s “just (ruling)s”.

I have translated the plurals in line 1—of the noun <j^r^ and adjective br^—as intensive plurals. If taken as an ordinary numerical plural, the noun would mean something like “acts/demonstrations of love”.

Verse 157

“Many [<yB!r^] (also are) my pursuers and my foes—
(yet) from your witness I do not bend away!”

The Psalmist engages in some wordplay, repeating the plural adjective <yB!r^ from v. 156a. If the demonstrations of YHWH’s love are many, so also are are the number of wicked adversaries who pursue the protagonist. This verb [d^r* (“pursue”, i.e., with hostile/evil intent) occurred earlier in vv. 84, 86, 150; most notably, in the latter instance, as here, the participle (verbal adjective) indicates regular/habitual behavior that is characteristic of the wicked.

Even in the face of hostile attacks and threats, and outright oppression coming from the wicked, the protagonist does not “turn away” (lit., bend away, vb hf*n`) from the Torah of YHWH; for earlier occurrences of this verb, cf. vv. 36, 51, 112. This language alludes back to the path/walking theme that has featured so prominently in much of the Psalm. The protagonist remains firmly on the path of God, being loyal to the covenant and devoted to its Torah; he does not go astray or veer from the path, and prays to YHWH (cf. many of the earlier petitions) for help and the ability to continue walking firmly in it.

The Torah precepts and regulations, etc, represent the terms of the covenant, and thus are referred to by the noun hd*u@ (“witness”), in the plural, as things that have been “witnessed to” by both YHWH and the people. For poetic concision, I have been translating the suffixed plural as a (collective) singular, i.e., “your witness”; here the related noun tWdu@ is used (with no difference in meaning), cf. earlier in vv. 14, 31, 36, 88, 99, 111, 129, 144.

Verse 158

“I saw [yt!ya!r*] (the) treacherous (one)s, and felt disgust,
because they do not guard your word(s)!”

The wicked are fundamentally treacherous, as indicated by the verb dg~B*, meaning, primarily, that they are disloyal to YHWH, betraying the covenant-bond He established with Israel (cf. verse 118). With regard to the adversaries of the protagonist, specifically, they can be seen as regularly and characteristically (again a verbal adjective [participle] is used) acting in a treacherous and deceptive/disloyal manner toward him (i.e., toward the righteous). The protagonist himself, personally, felt revulsion and disgust (vb fWQ, in the Hitpael reflexive stem) toward these people. Yet it is not a personal revulsion toward the individuals, per se; rather, he is reacting to their disloyalty and lack of faithfulness to the covenant. These people do not guard (vb rm^v*) the words of YHWH, meaning they neglect (and violate) the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah. For a similar reaction by the protagonist, see v. 139.

Throughout the Psalm, this verb rm^v* (“guard”), along with the similar rx^n` (“keep watch [over]”), has repeatedly been used in this ethical-religious context of observing (i.e., keeping, fulfilling) the Torah. Note the conceptual wordplay utilizing the sight/seeing idiom: the protagonist observes (“sees”, vb ha*r*) the wicked not observing (i.e., watching over) the Torah. As in v. 154 (see above), the noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”) is used for the “word(s)” of YHWH (that is, in the Torah).

Verse 159

“See [ha@r=] how your charges (to us) I do love!
YHWH, according to your devotion, give me life!”

The protagonist expresses his love for the Torah (cf. earlier in vv. 47-48, 97, 113, 119, 127, 132, 140). This is another instead of an appeal based on his faithfulness to the covenant; such faithfulness means that YHWH should answer his prayer, providing blessings and protection, etc. (“give me life!”), according to the covenant promises. An appeal is further made to YHWH’s own loyalty and devotion (ds#j#) to the covenant (cf. earlier in vv. 41, 64, 76, 88, 124, 149), as a way of urging God to fulfill His covenant-obligations. On the request for YHWH to “give/grant life” (vb hy`j*, Piel), see vv. 154, 156 (above).
Both here and in v. 156, the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa has the verb /n~j* (“show favor to”) rather than hy~j* (Piel, “give life”). Also, here the same manuscript reads “according to your word” (noun hr*m=a!, cf. above), rather than “according to your devotion” (noun ds#j#).

The noun dWQP! (in the plural) is used regularly throughout the Psalm, as a designation for the required duties and regulations, etc, of the Torah. It properly denotes something that a person is obligated to “take care of” (i.e., attend to, deal with); I have translated the suffixed plural as “your charges”, viz., duties one has been charged (by God) to fulfill. Cf. earlier in vv. 4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93-94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141.

Verse 160

“(The very) head of [var)] your word (is) firmness,
and (endures) forever, every judgment of your rightness.”

The characteristic of YHWH (and His Torah) as “firmness” (tm#a#) was emphasized in the prior two stanzas (see vv. 142, 151); cf. also earlier in v. 43. The related noun hn`Wma$, with comparable meaning, is also associated with the covenant and Torah of YHWH—vv. 30, 75, 86, 90, 138. Here tm#a# is paired with the noun qd#x# (“rightness”) in line 2 as a comparable Divine attribute (“your rightness”); cf. earlier in vv. 7, 62, 75, 106, 121, 123, 138, 142, 144.

The Psalmist (and protagonist) declares that YHWH’s word (rb*D*, cf. hr*m=a! earlier in vv. 154, 158) is firm, with the characteristic of firmness (i.e., sure, faithful, trustworthy, true), and that it is fully so, having been established from the very beginning. These last two aspects are indicated, together, by the use of the noun var) (“head”). The expression “head of…” can serve as an idiom for the ‘sum total’ (i.e., essence), or the leading characteristic, etc, of something. At the same time, “head” can connote the “top” or “beginning”; qualitatively, one might refer to the English idiom “from head to toe”, i.e., from beginning to end. It can also refer to the “beginning” in a temporal sense, which here fits well with the second line and the temporal-durative expression <l*oul= (“into/unto [the] distant [future]”); cf. vv. 151-152. If the word of YHWH is “firm” from the beginning, and completely, this means it also lasts/endures into the far distant future (i.e., forever).

Here, the “word” (plur. “words” in 11QPsa, MT mss, LXX) of YHWH refers, principally, to the covenant and the Torah, but it can also be understood more generally. The same is true of the noun fP*v=m! (“judgment”), which, in the plural, is used as a regular term in the Psalm for the precepts and regulations of the Torah. In such instances, I have translated it as “just (ruling)s”; however, here, in the singular, the rendering “judgment” seems more appropriate, particularly at this climactic point (the last word) of the stanza. YHWH’s judgment (of the wicked, and on behalf of the righteous) has been alluded to throughout the stanza (see esp. verse 154, with the use of byr!), and is suggested again by the context of v. 160. Of course, such judgment is expressed and foreshadowed in the Torah itself (see esp. the blessings and curses in Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28).

The twenty-first stanza (vv. 161-168) will be discussed in the next note.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).

January 11: Psalm 119:145-152

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 18 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 19: verses 145-152

q
Verse 145

“I called [yt!ar*q*] with all my heart—
answer me (now), O YHWH,
(that) your decrees I might watch!”

As in many of the prior stanzas, here certain features of the lament– and prayer-Psalms have been employed, within the unique Wisdom context of the Psalm (focused on observance of the Torah). The petition formula suggests a prayer for deliverance—viz., the protagonist asks YHWH to protect and rescue him (from danger) in the time of his distress. The implication of the first line is that the protagonist has called out to YHWH, repeatedly, but God has not (yet) answered him. Cf. Ps 4:1; 18:4[3]; 22:3[2]; 28:1, etc.

The ambiguity of emphasis in the third line reflects the genre-context of the prayer for deliverance. In such Psalms, the protagonist appeals to YHWH on the basis of his faithfulness and devotion to the covenant; and the line here could be read from the same standpoint, i.e.: “…answer me, O YHWH, (for) I keep watch over your decrees”. However, throughout our Psalm, the goal of the protagonist’s petitions has consistently been that YHWH would help him to continue being faithful to the covenant, with ever greater devotion to the Torah regulations and understanding of its precepts. I have rendered the line with this orientation in mind.

The noun qj) (“inscribed [decree]”), in the plural, is one of the regular terms used in the Psalm to designate the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah (see vv. 5, 8, 12, 23, 26, 33, 48, 54, 64, 68, 71, 80, 83, 112, 117-118, 124, 135). Similarly, the verb rx^n` (“keep watch [over]”) has been used repeatedly (along with rm^v*, “guard”), in this traditional ethical-religious context of Torah observance; cf. earlier in vv. 2, 22, 33-34, 56, 69, 100, 115, 129.

This verse is a 2-beat (2+2+2) tricolon; see also, e.g., vv. 75, 84, 104, 112.

Verse 146

“I have called to you [;yt!ar*q*], (so) save me,
that I might (ever) guard your witness!”

This terse 2-beat (2+2) couplet essentially repeats the petition from v. 145. Again, the petitionary format from the prayer-for-deliverance genre is applied to the special context of this Psalm, with its continual focus on the Torah. As noted above, the verb rm^v* (“guard”) is used interchangeably with rx^n` (“watch [over]”); cf. earlier in vv. 4-5, 8-9, 17, 34, 44, 55, 57, 60, 63, 67, 88, 101, 106, 134, 136. The noun hd*u@ (“witness”, along with tWdu@) is another regular term for designating the Torah regulations, etc., specifically in the sense that they represent the terms of the covenant, which have been solemnly witnessed to by both God and the people. In this context, the plural of the noun means something like “(thing)s witnessed to”; but, for poetic concision, I have rendered the suffixed plural form, in most instances, as “your witness”. Cf. the earlier usage in vv. 2, 22, 24, 46, 59, 79, 95, 119, 125, 138.

Verse 147

“I come before [yT!m=D^q!] (you) with the breeze and call for help,
(and) for your word(s) I wait (all day long).”

The protagonist’s loyal devotion is further expressed here, along with his intense longing that YHWH might finally answer his prayer. The second line has a double-meaning in this regard. On the one hand, he waits (vb lj^y`, cf. vv. 43, 49, 74, 81, 114), with hopeful expectation, all day long, from the first breeze ([v#n#) of morning; he waits for YHWH’s response (“your word[s]”), the answer to his prayer. At the same time, the line means that the protagonist is constantly waiting for opportunity to meditate upon the Torah, and to fulfill its required duties. His “call” to YHWH (vv. 145-146) is here referred to as a call for help (vb uw`v*), again reflecting the prayer-for-deliverance genre.

The noun rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”), used interchangeably with hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”), has a three-fold meaning in the Psalm. It refers: (1) to the Torah precepts and regulations, etc.; (2) to the promises made by God (in the Torah), i.e., of blessing and protection, for those who are faithful to the covenant; and (3) to the creative and life-giving word of God generally (by which He brings salvation and deliverance). The Kethib of the MT has a plural form, “your words”, but the Qere understands a singular (“your word”); in point of fact, the singular and plural of this noun (and hr*m=a!) are used more or less interchangeably (cf. v. 148 below), and there is some confusion in the (Qumran) manuscripts and versions in this regard. In terms of the traditional motif of YHWH’s answer to the righteous person’s prayer, the singular “word” is more appropriate, while the plural “words” more precisely reflects a reference to the Torah (precepts and regulations).

This verse is a 3+2 couplet, which is the dominant meter of the Psalm (cf. also verses 148, 150, 152).

Verse 148

“They stand before [WmD=q!] (the) watches, (do) my eyes,
(in order) to meditate on (all) your saying(s).”

Just as the protagonist “stands before” (vb <d^q*, Piel) YHWH at the very dawning of the day (“with the breeze”), v. 147, so he also “stands before” (same verb) Him all through the night (i.e., during the night “watches”). Specifically, it is his eyes that are involved (and the subject of the verb <d^q*), as is appropriate for the motif of watching (root rmv, “guard”, cf. verses 145-146 above). He keeps awake all night, watching (i.e., keeping guard), for the purpose of staying constantly occupied with the Torah of YHWH (“your saying[s]”), meditating and musing upon them (vb j^yc!, cf. earlier in vv. 15, 23, 27, 48, 78).

Verse 149

“My voice [yl!oq] hear, according to your loyal devotion,
O YHWH—
according to your just (ruling)s, give life to me!”

The protagonist’s plea intensifies here, in v. 149, at the heart of the stanza. Metrically, the verse can be read as a 3+3 couplet; however, the division employed by Dahood (III, p. 190f) more accurately represents the rhythm (8:2:8, based on syllable count) and poetic structure of the verse. Note the chiasm that results:

    • “Hear my voice
      • according to your loyal devotion
        • O YHWH
      • according to your just (ruling)s
    • give life to me.”

The outermost elements present a two-fold petition by the protagonist, asking YHWH to answer his prayer (“hear my voice”), and to respond favorably, responding with His saving and life-giving word (“give life to me”). The appeal is made on the basis of the covenant, as is generally the case in the lament- and prayer-Psalms. Earlier in the stanza (vv. 145-146) it was the protagonist’s loyalty to the covenant that was alluded to; here, it is YHWH’s loyalty (“according to your loving devotion [ds#j#]”) that is in view, and to the justness (i.e., justice) of the decisions that He makes. The noun fP*v=m!, in the plural (rendered “just [ruling]s”), is another of the recurring terms used to designate the Torah regulations, etc.; cf. earlier in vv. 7, 13, 20, 30, 39, 43, 52, 62, 75, 84, 91, 102, 106, 108, 120-121, 132, 137. The verb hy`j* (Piel, “give/bring/preserve life”) also occurs, in similar petition-contexts, earlier in the Psalm (vv. 17, 25, 37, 40, 50, 77, 88, 93, 107, 116, 144).

Verse 150

“They have come near [Wbr=q*], pursuing with evil intent,
(those who) from your instruction are far away.”

Only here in this verse do we find the kind of detail that we would normally expect from a prayer for deliverance, in a lament-Psalm—namely, a reference to the wicked adversaries who “pursue” (vb [d^r*) the protagonist with hostile (i.e., evil) intent (hM*z!). It is possible to read the entire stanza (its petitions) according to this point of reference, and, indeed, the requests for YHWH to save the protagonist (v. 146) and to keep him alive (v. 149) would well fit such a context. However, since the stanza as a whole is oriented more toward Torah devotion, than it is to the detail of these lament-motifs, the attacks by the wicked mentioned here should be taken as a traditional element which is included so as to further enhance the idea of the protagonist’s faithfulness to the covenant. His loyal devotion is in marked contrast to that of his wicked adversaries, who stand far off (lit., wide apart, vb qj^r*) from YHWH’s Torah. Note the dark irony expressed here: while the wicked come near (vb br^q*) for evil purposes, they are, at the same time, far away from God. There is also an implicit contrast between the wicked standing far away from God, and the righteous protagonist who stands before YHWH (vb <d^q*, vv. 147-148), close to Him and in His very presence. It is through his devotion to the Torah that the protagonist remains close/near to God.

Verse 151

“(Standing) near [borq*] (to me) you (are), YHWH,
and all your commands (reflect your) firmness.”

This couplet is most difficult to translate with precision, though the basic sense is clear enough. While the wicked adversaries (pursuers/persecutors) of the protagonist have “come near” (vb br^q*), he trusts that he is under YHWH’s protection, since YHWH is, surely, standing near (borq*) to him. It is possible to treat the adjective (borq*) as a Divine attribute or title (see Dahood, III, p. 191)—i.e., YHWH as the “Near (One)”, the “(One who is) near”. In any case, the Psalmist certainly understands this “nearness” in terms of the covenant-bond. This is made particularly clear with the use of the noun tm#a# (“firmness”) in the second line (cf. earlier in v. 43, also hn`Wma$ in vv. 30, 75, 86, 90, 138). This “firmness” can connote, specifically, one’s faithfulness and loyalty (i.e., to the covenant), and also, more generally, the person’s trustworthiness (and truthfulness). The nouns tm#a# and hn`Wma$ tend to carry these nuances of meaning throughout the Psalms, and certainly here in Ps 119.

While this language alludes to the Divine protection that YHWH will provide for His faithful/righteous ones, it also refers more directly (in the context of the Psalm) to the Torah itself. The noun hw`x=m! (“command”), in the plural (“your commands”), is another of the primary terms used to designate the regulations, etc, of the Torah (viz., as things which YHWH has ordered and commanded [vb hw`x*]). See its use earlier in vv. 6, 10, 19, 21, 32, 35, 47-48, 60, 66, 73, 86, 96, 98, 115, 127, 131, 143. As the protagonist remains loyal to the covenant (and the Torah), he can trust that YHWH will answer his prayer, protecting/rescuing him from evil and helping him to live with even greater devotion to the Torah.

Verse 152

“(From) before [<d#q#] I have known (this) of your witness—
that unto (the) distant (future) you founded them!”

The Psalmist here is playing on the meaning(s) of the root <dq (used earlier in vv. 147-148), the basic denotation of which is “be/go in front”. The verb in vv. 147-148 is used to express certain aspects of the protagonist’s faithfulness and devotion to YHWH (and to the covenant)—viz., he comes/stands before God, praying to Him, and also positioning himself ‘in front’ of the Torah, so that he might constantly (all day long and into the night) watch over its precepts and duties, guarding them faithfully. Much the same is true here, with the use of the noun <d#q# (indicating a place/position “in front” or “before”); however, the term can also function adverbially, and in a general (temporal) sense—i.e., at a time before, earlier, at the beginning. There is thus a certain duality of meaning: on the one hand, the protagonist simply means that he has known something “from before, earlier”; yet, at the same time, there is an allusion to the protagonist’s faithfulness (i.e., to the Torah), which has given him insight and a confident understanding.

What he has come to know (“[from] before”) is that the covenant (and Torah) established by YHWH is indeed firm (v. 151), having been founded (vb ds^y`, i.e., fixed firmly in place) so that it will last “into the distant future” (i.e., forever). The traditional expression  <l*oul=, as a temporal-durative idiom, can refer either to the distant past or the distant future; both orientations are presumably implied here—i.e., the covenant (with its Torah) was founded by YHWH in most ancient times (distant past), and will endure far into the (distant) future. As in verse 146 (see above), the noun hd*u@ (“witness”, in the plural) is used to designate the Torah (precepts and regulations) as the terms of the covenant, things “witnessed to” by both God and the people.

Instead of “from your witness [plur.]” (;ytdum), the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa reads “from knowledge of you” (hktudm), which would seem to reflect a scribal error. More curious is the final word of the verse, which has a first person singular suffix (“you founded me”, yntdsy), rather than the third person plural of the MT (“you founded them”, <tdsy).

The twentieth stanza (vv. 153-160) will be discussed in the next note.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).

The Incarnation and the Birth of Jesus in Paul: Romans 1:3-4

This series was introduced for the holiday season, the days of Christmas, during which we explored Paul’s use of the verb gi/nomai (“come to be, become”) in Christologically significant contexts, suggesting the idea of the incarnation of Christ, and, in particular, his birth as a human being. These articles covered the first division (A.) of our study. Now, we turn to the second division (B.), in which we will examine specifically the theme of the Divine Sonship of Jesus, and also the motif of God (the Father) sending His Son to earth. In so doing, we will also give further consideration to the extent to which Paul expresses a belief in the pre-existence of Jesus as the Son of God.

B. The Sonship of Jesus, and the Sending of God’s Son

As noted above, these two themes—the Sonship of Jesus, and God’s Sending of His Son—are closely related, as can be seen, particularly, in a number of key Pauline passages. Two of these references—Galatians 4:4ff and Romans 1:3-4—have already been studied in prior articles, but with the use of the verb gi/nomai as the focus. Now, we shall examine them from the standpoint of the Sonship and Sending themes. We begin with Romans 1:3-4; even though Galatians was written earlier than Romans, there is a strong possibility that in Rom 1:3-4 Paul is utilizing an existing confessional (and/or hymnic) statement. If so, then the wording and formulation of the Christology in Rom 1:3-4, taken on its own, could well be older than that of Galatians.

Romans 1:3-4

Many commentators would hold that these two verses represent (at least a portion of) an early confessional (or credal) statement regarding the person of Jesus Christ. Its phrasing and parallelistic structure would be typical of a hymn or other poetic form that might have been used by first-century Christians in a worship setting. Several details of vocabulary, style, and emphasis, atypical of Paul’s letters, provide a relatively strong argument in favor of a pre-Pauline source for the formula in vv. 3-4. Among the most notable of these are:

    • The traditional Messianic association of Jesus with David (i.e., as the ‘Son of David’), an association that is largely absent from Paul’s letters (but cf. 2 Tim 2:8); it certainly was not a point that Paul emphasized, though it would have been accepted as part of the inherited tradition (cf. below).
    • The use of the verb o(ri/zw (“mark out”), which occurs only here in the Pauline corpus, but which was apparently part of the early kerygmatic/confessional language (cf. Acts 2:23; 10:42; 17:31).
    • The specific expression “Spirit of holiness”, which is according to the Hebrew/Semitic manner of expression (i.e., vd#q) j^Wr)—and thus might have been part of the wording characteristic of early Jewish Christians—whereas Paul always uses the adjective (a%gio$) in Greek (i.e., “holy Spirit”).

Perhaps even more significant is that the Sonship of Jesus is understood (at least in verse 4) fundamentally in terms of the resurrection. While this association is not exactly foreign to Paul (as we shall see), it is particularly prominent in the Christological statements that were expressed by believers during the early years of the Gospel proclamation (kergyma). This point will be discussed briefly below.

We should also note certain formal elements of the statement in vv. 3-4 which tend to feature in early Christian hymns and confessional formulae, and which could be taken as markers of (earlier) traditional material. Two, in particular, can be pointed out: (i) clauses governed by opening participle-forms, and (ii) the use of an initial relative pronoun (“who/which”, o%$/o%) to introduce the key clauses of the formula. On the main participle-clauses of vv. 3-4, see the discussion in the earlier article. The relative pronoun anchors the ‘Christ-hymns’ in Philippians (2:6), Colossians (1:15), 1 Timothy (3:16), and in Hebrews (1:2-3), where the masculine pronoun (o%$) serves to define Jesus Christ as “the one who…”). Here, in v. 2, the neuter pronoun refers, not to the person of Christ proper, but to the message (i.e., Gospel) of Christ (viz., the neuter noun eu)agge/lion).

The lines of this ‘Christ hymn’ (if we are to call it such) comprise part of the epistolary prescript—that is, the opening address and greeting of the letter (vv. 1-7), which reads as a single sentence in Greek. The key term in the opening verse is eu)agge/lion (“good message”, i.e. Gospel); the second verse builds syntactically upon this noun:

“…which [o%] He gave a message about before(hand), through His Foretellers [i.e. Prophets], in (the) holy Writings…”

For the conceptual and thematic connection between verse 2 and the Christological statement in vv. 3-4, see the discussion in the earlier article. The key point, for the purpose of our current study, is the qualifying phrase at the beginning of v. 3, which states that the “good message” (i.e., the Gospel) is specifically about (peri/) God’s Son (“about His Son…” [peri\ tou= ui(ou= au)tou=]). Jesus is thus implicitly identified as the Son of God, without necessarily explaining in what way he is God’s Son. The remaining clauses in vv. 3-4 expound, in summary (confessional) form, the message about the Son (Jesus). We have already examined these (in the aforementioned article), but let us consider them again, in terms of this Christological exposition regarding Jesus’ identity as God’s Son.

Explanatory clause #1 (verse 3)

“the (one hav)ing come to be (born) out of (the) seed of David according to (the) flesh”

There are three main components (phrases/expressions) for each clause; here in verse 3 they are:

    • “the (one hav)ing come to be (born)” [tou= genome/nou]
    • “out of (the) seed of David” [e)k spe/rmato$ Daui\d]
    • “according to (the) flesh” [kata\ sa/rka]

Each component may be further explained in a relatively straightforward manner, in accordance with early Christian belief and tradition:

tou= genome/nou (“the [one hav]ing come to be”)—This is a substantive verbal noun (participle) with the definite article. It defines Jesus Christ (God’s Son) as “the (one who)…”, with the verbal noun governing the entire clause. The verb is the verb of becoming (gi/nomai), the subject of the first division (A.) of our study; on this verb in vv. 3-4, see the earlier article. It implicitly states the coming into being (i.e., the birth) of Jesus, i.e., as a human being. The birth of Jesus was not, per se, part of the earliest Gospel message; for example, it appears nowhere in the preaching recorded in the book of Acts, nor is it particularly mentioned in the core Synoptic narrative (as represented by the Gospel of Mark). However, by around 80 A.D. (at the latest), there was at least a simple narrative in circulation regarding Jesus’ birth—tradition(s) which formed the basis for the Infancy narratives in Matthew and Luke.

Paul’s use of gi/nomai here as an aspect of Jesus’ identity as God’s Son, raises two points of Christological interpretation: (1) first, is the Messianic emphasis of the clause in v. 3, i.e., the Davidic Messiah as God’s “Son” (cf. below); but (2) second, the question of whether God’s Son “coming to be (born)” implies that Jesus was already God’s Son prior to his being born. Let us start with the first point, as it is expressed by the second component of the clause.

e)k spe/rmato$ Daui\d (“out of [the] seed of David”)—This expression implicitly declares Jesus’ identity as the Davidic Messiah—that is, the royal Messiah from the line of David; on this specific Messianic figure-type, see Parts 6-8 of the series “Yeshua the Anointed”. In early Christian tradition, as reflected by the genealogies in Matthew (1:1-16) and Luke (3:23-38), Jesus’ was a descendant of David only from a legal, not biological, standpoint, through his human father Joseph. However, the wording here in v. 3 suggests that Jesus was (also?) a biological descendant of David. This interpretation is strengthened, both by the qualifying phrase that follows (“according to the flesh”), and by the formal parallel in Galatians 4:4 (“out of a woman” || “out of the seed of David”)—suggesting that the “woman” (i.e., Jesus’ mother) was of the seed of David. Certainly, a Davidic lineage for Mary came to be part of early Christian belief and tradition, even though it is not otherwise indicated in the Gospels; indeed, Luke 1:5, 36 would seem to indicate that Mary was of the tribe of Levi, rather than Judah.

Before proceeding to consider the understanding of Jesus’ Sonship from a Messianic standpoint, let us continue with the final component of the clause:

kata\ sa/rka (“according to [the] flesh”)—Paul often uses this expression (and the term sa/rc [“flesh”] itself) in a decidedly negative way, in contrast to the Spirit, and in connection with the human impulse toward sin. However, it can also refers to human nature in a general sense, and Paul uses it as such, for example, in 1 Cor 10:18; 2 Cor 5:16; in other references, the general and specific (negative) Pauline usage tends to blend together. Here, the expression means, primarily, that the Son (Jesus) was born as a real (flesh-and-blood) human being. The framework of the first and third components makes this clear: “the (one hav)ing come to be (born)…according to (the) flesh”. It could also imply, as noted above, that Jesus was a descendant of David “according to the flesh” (that is, according to a normal human birth-lineage).

The relation of Romans 1:3 to early Christian Tradition

If we examine the Gospel Tradition (in the New Testament) as a whole, there are three main strands of the Tradition which explain, and according to which we may understand, the Sonship of Jesus:

    • The resurrection (and exaltation) of Jesus
    • The baptism of Jesus (according to the Gospel baptism-scene), and
    • The birth of Jesus (in the two Infancy narratives)

I would argue that, in all three strands of Tradition, the Sonship of Jesus is understood primarily from a Messianic standpoint. This is particularly true with regard to the last two strands—the baptism and birth of Jesus. The connection is clearest for the birth of Jesus in the Matthean and Lukan Infancy narratives (Matt 1-2; Luke 1-2), where Jesus’ identity as the Davidic Messiah is a dominant theme; for a discussion on this, see the recent two-part article (Part 1 & 2) on the Kingdom/Kingship-theme in the Infancy narratives.

As far as scene of Jesus’ baptism is concerned (Mk 1:9-11 par), its place in the Gospel narrative (esp. the Synoptic narrative) indicates that Jesus’ identity as a Messianic Prophet may be primarily in view. The likelihood that the proclamation of the Divine voice from heaven (Mk 1:11 par) alludes to Isa 42:1 (as much as Psalm 2:7), also points in this direction; cf. my earlier article on Isa 42:1 in the Gospel Tradition. The first half of the Synoptic narrative (viz., the Galilean period) emphasizes Jesus’ identification with the Messianic Prophet figure-types (Moses, Elijah, and the herald of Isa 61, etc), rather than the royal/Davidic figure-type (which is emphasized in the second half of the narrative [the Jerusalem period]). The Lukan narrative, in particular, ties the baptism scene to this understanding of Jesus as the Anointed (Messianic) Prophet—see the immediate connection of 3:22 to 4:1ff, 14, 18ff, 24ff. Even so, there is probably also an allusion to Psalm 2:7 (cf. 2 Sam 7:14, etc) in the Baptism-scene, establishing Jesus identity as the Davidic Messiah, even prior to the point where it comes to the fore in the Synoptic narrative (viz., the approach to Jerusalem and the Triumphal Entry scene, Mk 10:47-48; chap 11, par).

This leaves us with the resurrection of Jesus. It would seem that this strand represents the earliest Christian understanding of the Sonship of Jesus—viz., that Jesus came to be the Son of God as a result of his resurrection and exaltation (to heaven). This confirmed his identity as the royal/Davidic Messiah (and thus the Son of God), but it also established a Divine/heavenly status and position for him (at the right hand of God). We see this expressed quite clearly in the early Christian preaching (kerygma) recorded in the book of Acts; note, in particular, the declarations in Acts 2:36 and 13:33ff. The latter occurs in a sermon by Paul, in which Psalm 2:7 (identifying Jesus as God’s Son) is specifically interpreted in terms of the resurrection (cp. Hebrews 1:5; 5:5). That Paul, indeed, shared this early exaltation Christology, would seem to be confirmed by the earliest reference (in his letters) to Jesus as God’s Son, 1 Thess 1:10. Jesus’ Sonship is implicitly understood in terms of his heavenly place/position (with God the Father), which he obtained following the resurrection, and from where he will soon return to earth (cf. chapters 4-5).

However, Paul’s Christology, and his view of Jesus as God’s Son, was not limited to the early exaltation-Christology. As we have already seen in our studies, this early Christology was supplemented with an incarnational view of Christ that suggests at least a rudimentary belief in the Divine pre-existence of Jesus. In the next article, we will bring together the clauses of verse 3 and 4, with a consideration of how Paul has interpreted and developed the early Christian tradition(s) which he inherited. We will also look at vv. 3-4 in light of other references to Jesus’ Sonship (in Corinthians and Galatians).

January 7: Psalm 119:137-144

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 17 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 18: verses 137-144

x
Verse 137

“Right(eous) [qyd!x*] (are) you, O YHWH,
and straight (in) your judgments!”

This stanza functions as a Psalm of praise to YHWH (and His Torah), much as in the opening three verses of the previous stanza. The protagonist (and the Psalmist) extols two fundamental attributes of YHWH: His rightness (qd#x#, adj. qyd!x*) and His straightness (adj. rv*y`). These are traditional terms, frequently attributed to YHWH, and they carry three levels (or aspects) of significance: (i) righteousness (ethical-religious), (ii) justice (social-judicial), and (iii) faithfulness/loyalty (covenantal). All three of these aspects apply here in the context of the Psalm. And, if they characterize YHWH Himself, they also characterize His judgments (made in His role as Sovereign). The noun fP*v=m!, in the plural, has been used regularly in the Psalm as one of the terms designating the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah; it also has this significance here, though it need not be limited to the context of the covenant. Indeed, it can refer to all the judgments and just rulings made by YHWH, at all times, as King and Judge over all the world.

Some commentators would translate the second line with “your judgments” as the subject (i.e., “and straight [are] your judgments”). While the thought expressed is certainly valid, and the rendering produces an apt parallelism between the lines, it also creates a disagreement between the singular predicate adjective (rv*y`) and the plural noun. The problem is solved by treating YHWH as the subject of both lines, with the adjective rv^y` as an accusative (i.e., of specification or limitation, cf. Dahood, III, p. 189). For a different way of handling and explaining the grammatical disagreement, see Allen, p. 180 (citing GKC §145r).
The disagreement is resolved in the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa, which reads a plural form of the adjective rv*y` (<yrvyw), so that it agrees with the plural noun.

Metrically, every verse in this stanza is a 3+2 couplet, with the lone exception of v. 139 (see below).

Verse 138

“You have commanded [t*yW]x!] (with) rightness your witness,
and (with) firmness to the utmost!”

Again, as in v. 137, the Divine attribute of “rightness” (qd#x#) is extolled, this time paired with another traditional characteristic—that of firmness (hn`Wma$). The root /ma, like /WK (cf. verse 133 in the prior stanza), means “be firm”, often in the sense of “sure, certain, secure”. In an ethical-religious context—and, in particular, in relation to the covenant—it carries the meaning of “faithfulness, trustworthiness”. Indeed, the noun hn`Wma$ tends to have this covenantal connotation in the Psalms (where it is often paired with hq*d*x= or qd#x#). The plural of hd*u@ (“witness”, also tWdu@) is another of the terms regularly used for the Torah, signifying the precepts and regulations of the Torah as the terms of the covenant (between YHWH and Israel), and thus having been witnessed to by both God and the people. For poetic concision, I have been translating the suffixed plural as a (collective) singular (i.e., “your witness”); properly it means something like, “(the thing)s witnessed to, which you (established)”. These are things which YHWH, as the Sovereign, has commanded (vb hw`x*); the Torah regulations, etc, are thus required duties which the people are obligated to fulfill.

The adverb da)m= (“[very] much”) is used as an intensive modifier, which I translate here as “to the utmost”. For a very different explanation of da)m= (as a Divine title), cf. Dahood, III, p. 189.

Verse 139

“It (nearly) destroyed me [yn]t=t^M=x!], my zeal (for you),
because my adversaries have (entirely) forgotten your words.”

The syntax (and meaning) of this third couplet is difficult, but the idea seems to be that the protagonist’s faithfulness—i.e., his “zeal” (ha`n+q!) for YHWH and the Torah—has led to his being attacked and oppressed by wicked adversaries. This is a traditional theme in the Psalms (esp. the prayer- and lament-Psalms), and has featured here in many of the prior stanzas as well. It is part of a larger Wisdom-theme—viz., the contrast between the righteous and the wickedness. Here, the wickedness of the protagonist’s adversaries is indicated by the fact that they have forgotten the words of YHWH (i.e., the precepts and regulations of the Torah); this is in direct contrast to the righteous protagonist, who continually watches over YHWH’s words and always has them in mind. For this motif of forgetting (vb jk^v*), cf. earlier in vv. 16, 61, 83, 93, 109, and below in v. 141. The Torah precepts, etc, are designated as the “word(s)” of YHWH throughout the Psalm (rb*D*, sing. & plur., occurring 24 times, along with the parallel term hr*m=a! [cf. v. 140 below]).

I have translated the perfect form of the verb tm^x* (“destroy, make disappear”) with the gloss “it nearly destroyed me”, with the assumption, based on the context of the stanza, that YHWH has rescued (or is about to rescue) the protagonist from his adversaries. The praise-orientation of the stanza would suggest that the deliverance has taken place.

For the thought and wording in line 1, compare Ps 69:10[9]. The use of the verb lk^a* (“eat, devour”) in that verse, has led many commentators and translators to render tm^x* here similarly (but somewhat inaccurately) as “consume” (i.e., “my zeal has consumed me”).

As mentioned above, this is the only verse of the stanza that departs from the 3+2 meter. It is an irregular 2+3 couplet, and this rhythmic departure may be a way of expressing poetically the travail and suffering that the protagonist has experienced.

Verse 140

“Refined is [hp*Wx=] your saying (like pure)est (gold),
and (so does) your servant love it!”

The protagonist’s praise for the Torah of YHWH picks up again here from v. 138. This time, the attribute of purity is emphasized, using the metaphoric image of the refining (vb [r^x*) of metal. The intensive qualifying adverb da)m= (“[very] much”), which I translated in v. 138 as “to the utmost” (cf. above), is here rendered in relation to the metal-refining imagery of the verse (i.e., “like purest gold”). For a similar idea, cf. earlier in v. 127. The purity of the refined metal, according to the idiom, also connotes reliability and truthfulness (i.e., trustworthiness, faithfulness), thus connecting the metaphor back with the attributes emphasized in vv. 137-138. On the protagonist’s devotion and loyalty to the covenant expressed as love (vb bh^a*), see also vv. 47-48, 97, 113, 119, 127, 132.

The noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”) has been used interchangeably with rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”) throughout the Psalm. It occurs here in the singular, but, particularly in relation to the Torah, it should be understood as a collective noun, and could just as well be translated here (along verbal and suffix agreement) as a plural: “Refined are your saying(s) (like pur)est (gold), and (so does) your servant love them!”

Verse 141

“Little [ryu!x*] (am) I, and despised (by many people),
(yet) your charges I have not forgotten.”

The traditional contrast between the righteous and the wicked, brought out in v. 139 (cf. above), is alluded to again here. The protagonist describes himself as “little” (ryu!x*), an adjective that can carry the pejorative connotation of being “of little account”, i.e., thought little of, lightly regarded, held in low esteem, etc. It certainly has such a meaning here, especially when paired with the verbal adjective (passive participle) from the vb hz`B*, i.e., “despised, treated with contempt”. Many of the people—probably the majority of them (cf. v. 136)—would consider the protagonist, with his devotion to YHWH and the Torah, to be insignificant and of no account. The wickedness of these people, who have forgotten the covenant, might even lead them to despise him and to treat him with contempt (i.e., mistreating and oppressing him, etc). By contrast, the protagonist has not forgotten the covenant (on the verb jk^v*, cf. verse 139 above), and remains faithful to the Torah of God. Here, once again, the regulations and required duties of the Torah are represented by the term dWQP! (plur., translated “charges”); cf. earlier in vv. 4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93-94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134.

Verse 142

“Your right (word) [;t=q*d=x!] (is) rightness into (the) distant (future),
and your instruction (is) firmness (forever).”

The characteristics of “rightness” (qd#x#/hq*d*x=) and “firmness” (tm#a#/hn`Wma$), praised as attributes of YHWH (and His Torah) in vv. 137-138 (see above), are again extolled. In particular, they are said (effectively) to last forever, utilizing the traditional temporal-durative expression “into (the) distant (future)” (<l*oul=). In terms of the covenant, the binding agreement between YHWH and His people, this characteristic confirms the reliability of the agreement—and that YHWH, in His loyal devotion, will be entirely faithful in fulfilling His covenant obligations.

Both nouns hq*d*x= and qd#x#, with largely identical meanings, are used together in line 1, which creates some difficulty for translation: how should the terms be distinguished, or what nuances are intended to be brought out by the Psalmist? Throughout the Psalm, the second person suffix (“your”) tends to be used in relation to the Torah, and so I have glossed the suffixed form ;t=q*d=x! as “your right word” —this word which will be maintained, in its rightness (qd#x#), “into the distant future” (i.e., forever). Similarly, the suffixed noun hr*oT, which more properly (and customarily) designates the Torah of YHWH as a whole (“your instruction”) will remain firmly in place (“[in] firmness”, tm#a#), trustworthy and ever reliable, until the end of time.

The Qumran manuscript 11QPsa apparently read plural forms of both nouns hq*d*x= and qd#x#, which would tend to confirm that a reference to the right(eous) words of YHWH (i.e., in the Torah) is primarily in view.

Verse 143

“Tightness [rx^] and a narrow place may have found me,
(yet) your commands (remain) my delight.”

Here the protagonist expresses his faithfulness and devotion to the covenant (i.e., to YHWH and His Torah). Even when he finds himself in distress (rx^) and in a “narrow place” (qoxm*, we might say “a tight spot”), he will remain faithful, continuing to take delight (uuv) in the Torah of YHWH. This motif of delight has recurred throughout the Psalm; in particular, the verb uu^v*, was used earlier in vv. 16, 47, 70, with the noun u^v%u=v^ (as here) in vv. 24, 77, 92. The plural of hw`x=m! (“command”) is one of the regular terms in the Psalm for the regulations, etc, of the Torah, occurring 23 times (most recently in v. 131); cf. also the verb hw`x* (“order, command”) in v. 138 (above) and earlier in the Psalm (v. 4).

The alliteration in this verse is noteworthy, especially the three central words in sequence:

;yt#ox=m! yn]Wax*m= qoxm*W
ûm¹ƒôq m®ƒ¹°ûnî miƒwœtêk¹

Verse 144

“(The) rightness of [qd#x#] your witness (is) unto (the) distant (future)—
give understanding to me, that I may live!”

The first line of this concluding couplet summarizes the thought expressed in v. 142 (see above), emphasizing again the attribute of the “rightness” (qd#x#) of YHWH and His Torah (see above on vv. 137-138). The petition in the second line echoes the request made in many of the earlier prayer-stanzas—with the specific goal of the petition being that the protagonist should gain greater understanding of the Torah, and the ability to follow it with greater faithfulness and devotion. In particular, the verb /yB! (“understand, discern”) occurs a number of times throughout the Psalm, including (as here) in the Hiphil causative stem (i.e., “make understand, bring/give understanding”), cf. verses 27, 34, 73, 125, 130. Other petitions from the protagonist also include the hope (and expectation) that this blessing from YHWH will give life, and thus allow him to live; cf. this use of the verb hy`j* earlier in vv. 17, 25, 37, 40, 50, 77, 88, 93, 107, 116. The use of the temporal-durative expression <l*oul= (“into/unto the distant [future]”), having been repeated from v. 142, suggests that this “life” here refers (or at least alludes to) the promise of the blessed afterlife (with YHWH in heaven) that awaits for the righteous, as the ultimate reward for faithfulness to the covenant.

The nineteenth stanza (vv. 145-152) will be discussed in the next note.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).
References marked “Allen” are to Leslie C. Allen, Psalms 101-150 (Revised edition), Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 21 (Zondervan: 2002/2014).

January 5: Psalm 119:129-136

Psalm 119, continued

Stanza 16 was examined in the previous note; see also the introduction to the Psalm.

Stanza 17: verses 129-136

p
Verse 129

“Wonderful [toal*P=] (is) your witness—
upon this, my soul does watch over them!”

This next stanza opens with a declaration of praise for the covenant (and Torah), utilizing the plural of the noun tWdu@ (“witness”), as earlier in vv. 14, 31, 36, 88, 99, 111; the equivalent form hdu@ was used in vv. 2, 22, 24, 46, 59, 79, 95, 119. In the Psalm, this is one of the regular terms designating the precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah. These represent the terms of the covenant, having been witnessed to by both YHWH and the people. I have regularly translated the suffixed plural as a (collective) singular (i.e., “your witness”), which helps maintain the necessary poetic concision (especially here in the short 2-beat first line). However, it is a plural form (“witnesses”, or properly “[thing]s witnessed to”), reflected by the object suffix on the verb in the second line which I do render as a plural (“them”).

The verb rx^n` (cf. earlier in vv. 2, 22, 33-34, 56, 69, 100, 115), meaning “keep watch (over)”, is used interchangeably with rm^v* (“guard”), in this context of observing the regulations, etc, of the Torah. In the second line, the protagonist affirms (once again) his loyalty to the covenant and his devotion to the Torah. This is a regular theme running throughout the Psalm, and it is often emphasized in the second line of the couplet.

Instead of the initial word of the MT (twalp, “wonderful [thing]s”), the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa reads tpn yglp (“streams of honey”). While this reading provides an interesting parallel with v. 136 (see below), it is likely a scribal error; cp. Job 20:17.

The meter of this initial verse is an irregular 2+3.

Verse 130

“(The) opening of [jt^P@] your words brings light,
giving understanding (to the) open (one)s.”

The praise expressed in the initial couplet continues here, phrased in Wisdom-language. The MT vocalization of the first word (jtp), as a verbal noun (jt^P@, “opening”), is preferable to the reading of 11QPsa (and the Syriac version) which treats it as an imperative form (jt^P=, “Open…!”); cf. Dahood, III, p. 187f, who favors the imperative. The influence of Wisdom traditions can be seen throughout the Psalm, effectively identifying the Torah with the Wisdom of God. On the characterization of Wisdom (and the Torah) as light, which shines (vb roa, Hiphil) for the righteous (and illumines them), cf. Prov 4:18; 6:23; 13:9; Eccl 2:13; 8:1; and note the thematic emphasis elsewhere in the Psalms, 18:29[28]; 19:9[8]; 36:10[9]; 43:3; 97:11. This light-motif featured earlier at the beginning of Stanza 14 (v. 105), tied to the broader idiomatic theme of walking on the path of God (cf. also Prov 4:18).

There is wordplay involved here, between the first and last words of the couplet, utilizing the similar (and seemingly related) roots jtp and htp (I/II). The basic meaning for both is “open”; the commonly attested root htp I is perhaps best explained as denominative from the noun yt!P#, denoting a young and naive (i.e., simple, innocent) person. This latter is the word used here (in the plural) at the end of the second line. However, the noun yt!P# would seem to be derived, in turn, from a root (htp) meaning “be open, wide, spacious”; in English idiom, we might compare the expression “a wide-eyed youth”. My translation “open (one)s” preserves the wordplay.

In the Wisdom-context of the couplet (cf. the use of yt!P# in Ps 19:9[8] and 15 times in Proverbs [1:4, etc]), the idea is that the precepts and regulations of the Torah give wisdom and understanding to the young, and to those who otherwise lack experience and discernment. The verb /yB! (“understand, discern”), in the Hiphil (causative) stem, i.e., “give/bring understanding”, occurs a number of times in the Psalm (cf. earlier in vv. 27, 34, 73); and cf. also the verb in vv. 95, 100, 104. The participle form indicates a regular and continual activity, and demonstrates the characteristic nature of the Torah (reflecting YHWH’s own character). The Torah has been identified as the words (rb*D*, plur.) of YHWH throughout the Psalm (cf. most recently, vv. 101, 105, 107).

Metrically, this verse is a 3+2 couplet, the dominant meter of the Psalm (cf. also vv. 131, 134-135 in this Stanza).

Verse 131

“My mouth [yP!] I have opened wide and panted,
because I do long for your commands.”

The motif of being open, from v. 130, continues here with the image of the protagonist opening wide (vb ru^P*) his mouth. He opens it this way because he is gasping/panting (vb [a^v*) with longing (vb ba^y`) for the Torah of YHWH. Usually this idiom of gasping/panting has a negative connotation, indicating the suffering and travail of the righteous, and/or hostile attacks by the wicked. However, it occurs in a similar (Wisdom) context in Ps 42:1, but with a different verb (gr^u* [twice]) being used. The verb ba^y` is actually extremely rare, occurring only here in the Scriptures. The Qumran manuscript 11QPsa has the verb ba^T* (with comparable meaning), as also here in vv. 40, 174. It would seem that both roots bay and bat represent secondary intensifying developments from the base verbal root hba (“wish, want, desire”).

The plural of hy`x=m! (“command”) is one of the recurring terms in the Psalm used to designate the regulations, etc, of the Torah; cf. earlier in vv. 6, 10, 19, 21, 32, 35, 47-48, 60, 66, 73, 86, 96, 98, 115, 127.

Note the alliteration in the first line: hp*a*v=a#w` yT!r=v^p* yP!, pî ¸¹šartî w¹°eš°¹¸â.

Verse 132

“May you turn [hn@P=] (your face) to me and show me favor,
according to (the) just (ruling) for (those) loving your name.”

The praise in vv. 129-131 gives way to a series of petitions (marked by imperatives), as the stanza takes on the character of a prayer-Psalm. The protagonist asks YHWH to turn (vb hn`P*, i.e. His face) to him, in such a way as to bestow a favor (vb /n~j*) upon him. This traditional language has the covenant in view. As the Sovereign, YHWH is expected to bestow blessings and favor upon those who are faithful/loyal to Him. Indeed, the second line here makes clear that the covenant is the basis for the favor that he requests, as expressed by the prefixed preposition K=, in the sense of “according to, in accordance with”.

Throughout the Psalm, the noun fP*v=m! (“judgment”), in both the singular and plural, has been used as a recurring term that designates the precepts and regulations of the Torah; in this context, I have translated it as “just (ruling)”, i.e., a determination/ruling made by YHWH (in His role as Sovereign). In this instance, it refers specifically to the promises made by YHWH in the Torah, regarding the blessings that will come for those who are faithful/loyal to the covenant (see, for example, Deut 28:1-14). The verbal expression “(those) loving your name” designates the righteous—i.e., they have loving devotion toward YHWH, and thus are faithful servants to Him under the terms of the covenant (the Torah). For this characteristic of love (vb bh^a*), see earlier in vv. 47-48, 97, 113, 119, 127; on the protagonist’s devotion to the name of YHWH (“your name”), see v. 55.

Metrically, this verse is a 3+3 couplet, as also vv. 133 and 136.

Verse 133

“My steps [ym^u*P=] may you set firm by your saying(s),
and do not let any trouble have control on me.”

This couplet essentially repeats the petition in v. 132 (see above), explaining the nature of the “favor” that the protagonist requests from YHWH. In keeping with the character of most of the earlier petitions in the Psalm, he specifically asks for help in remaining faithful to the covenant, following, with ever greater devotion and understanding, the path YHWH has laid out. This path/walking idiom has been used as a central theme throughout the Psalm, and it recurs here, with the idea of keeping the protagonist’s “steps” (<u^P^, plur.) set firmly on the path; for this use of the verb /WK (“be firm/fixed”), see earlier in vv. 5, 73, 90. This firmness (which also connotes faithfulness) means that he will neither slip/trip nor go astray from the path.

Interestingly, the Torah represents both the path and the means by which one is guided so as to stay on the path. This dual-nature of the Torah, in reference to the path-motif, occurs throughout the Psalm, and is emphasized here as well. The noun hr*m=a! (“saying, thing said”), in both the singular (collective) and plural, is used interchangeably with rb*D* (“word, thing spoken”, cf. above v. 130), as a way of referring to the precepts and regulations, etc., of the Torah, but also to the promises in the Torah (see v. 132, above). It is understandable that a number of manuscripts (along with the LXX) would read “according to [K=] your word(s)”, as in v. 132, rather than “by [B=] your word(s)”; but the MT reading with the preposition B= is almost certainly correct.
Interestingly, the Qumran manuscript 11QPsa has the preposition l=, which presumably means “to(ward) your word(s)”, indicating that YHWH’s words are the goal of the path—an idea which is also expressed in the Psalm.

The noun /w#a* in the second line is used for any kind of “trouble” that might come up on the path—i.e., obstacle, cause for stumbling/tripping, danger, false pathway, etc. In particular, it suggests occasion for sin, and for going astray—viz., neglecting or violating the Torah precepts and regulations. Often the “trouble” denoted by the noun implies an impending disaster. The protagonist requests that such “trouble”, if it must be faced, not be allowed to control (vb fl^v*) his steps on the path. This can be ensured if he is able (by YHWH’s help) to maintain control over his own feet, keeping them firmly to the path (line 1).

Verse 134

“May you ransom me [yn]d@P=] from (the) oppression of man,
that I might (ever) guard your charges.”

The “trouble” (v. 133) that the protagonist might face on the path can come specifically in the form of human oppression (i.e., hostile pressure, qv#u), cf. the vb qv^u* earlier in vv. 121-22). The verb hd*P* (lit., “ransom”) is often used in the more general sense of “save, rescue, deliver”, as it is here. This petition echoes the lament and prayer-for-deliverance features in a number of the earlier stanzas; as part of his prayer that YHWH would help keep his ‘feet’ firmly set on the path, the protagonist asks for rescue from any “pressure” that might come from the wicked, and which could potentially push him off the path.

Again, the main goal of his petition is to remain faithful (and ever more devoted) to YHWH and His Torah. This is expressed by the idea of guarding the regulations, etc, of the Torah, verb rm^v* (“guard”) being used used parallel with rx^n` (“keep watch [over]”) earlier in v. 129 (see above); rm^v* occurred previously in vv. 4-5, 8-9, 17, 34, 44, 55, 57, 60, 63, 67, 88, 101, 106. The noun dWQP! (in the plural, rendered as “charges”) is one of the recurring terms in the Psalm for the required duties and regulations of the Torah, denoting something that a person is obligated to “take care of” (i.e., deal with, attend to); cf. its use earlier in vv. 4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93-94, 100, 104, 110, 128.

Verse 135

“(Make) your face [;yn#P*] (to) shine light on your servant,
and make me to learn (better all) your decrees.”

Here, the requested blessing is wording in a manner similar to the traditional priestly blessing (Num 6:25)—a request that we also find in a number of other prayer-settings in the Psalms (31:17[16]; 67:2[1]; 80:4[3], 8[7], 20[19]); cf. also Dan 9:17. The verb roa (Hiphil, “give/shine light”) echoes the earlier use in v. 130 (see above). The verb hn`P* (“turn [i.e., and face]”) in v. 132 also alludes to the shining of YHWH’s face (<yn]P*), made more explicit here—viz., the idea of shining light being related to that of showing favor.

Once again, the goal of the petition is for the protagonist to better understand all the precepts of the Torah, and to fulfill them with greater devotion. Here, he asks YHWH to make him learn (vb dm^l*, Piel) the Torah better; cf. vv. 7, 12, 26, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73, 99, 108, 124. The precepts and regulations, etc, of the Torah are designated by the plural of qj) (“inscribed [decree]”), one of the recurring terms in the Psalm; cf. earlier in vv. 5, 8, 12, 23, 26, 33, 48, 54, 64, 68, 71, 80, 83, 112, 117-118, 124.

Verse 136

“Streams of [yg@l=P^] waters run down (from) my eyes,
over (how the people) do not guard your instruction!”

The stanza ends with an exclamation of lament, over (lu^) the fact that many people do not guard (vb rm^v*) the Torah in the way that the protagonist does (and wishes to do all the more); cf. verse 134 above (also v. 129). His devotion to the covenant is such that this lack of faithfulness by others is a source of great sadness to him; it causes him to weep profusely, according to the colorful image of streams of water (i.e., tears) flowing down his face. The noun gl#P# indicates a separate stream (tributary) of water, flowing out from a common source (cf. Psalm 1:3; Isa 32:2, etc). Line 1 resembles Lamentations 3:48, and, though the similarity may simply be traditional, a certain intentional wordplay seems to be present. In Lamentations, the poet weeps over (lu^) the destruction (rbv) of the people, while here the weeping is over (lu^) the people’s failure to guard (rmv) the Torah. There is no explicit subject for the verb rm^v* in the second line; we may assume that it is an implicit reference to the Israelite/Judean people as a whole, in contrast to the righteous/faithful ones. Assuming an exilic (or post-exilic) date for the Psalm (cf the Introduction), it may well be that an allusion to Lamentations and the conquest/exile is in view—i.e., that it is because of the failure to guard (rmv) the Torah that destruction (rbv) came upon the people and their land.

The eighteenth stanza (vv. 137-144) will be discussed in the next note.

References marked “Dahood, I”, “Dahood, II” and “Dahood, III” above are to, respectively, Mitchell Dahood, S.J., Psalms I: 1-50, Anchor Bible [AB] vol. 16 (1965), Psalms II: 51-100, vol. 17 (1968), and Psalms III: 101-150, vol. 17A (1970).

The Incarnation and the Birth of Jesus in Paul: Phil 2:7-8 (Part 3)

Philippians 2:7-8, continued
2:8

e)tapei/nwsen e(auto\n
geno/meno$ u(ph/koo$ me/xri qana/tou
qana/tou de\ staurou=
“he lowered himself,
coming to be (one) hearing under to the point of death,
even (of) death at (the) stake.”

Following the interpretive difficulties of vv. 6-7, verse 8 is relatively straightforward by comparison. We must not read it in isolation, however, for it is closely bound, both conceptually and syntactically, with verse 7 (cf. Parts 1 and 2). This can be illustrated through the following chiastic outline (repeated here from the discussion on v. 7c):

    • e(auto\n e)ke/nwsen (“he emptied himself”)
      • morfh\n dou/lou labw\n (“taking [the] form of a slave”)
        • e)n o(moiw/mati a)nqrw/pwn geno/meno$
          (“coming to be in [the] likeness of men”)
      • sxh/mati eu(reqei/$ w($ a&nqrwpo$ (“being found in shape as a man”)
    • e)tapei/nwsen e(auto\n… (“he lowered himself…”)

e)tapei/nwsen e(auto/n (8a)—The first phrase e)tapei/nwsen e(auto/n (“he lowered himself”) is clearly parallel with e(auto\n e)ke/nwsen (“he emptied himself” v. 7a [cf. Part 1]), and is similar in meaning, as well as having structural significance, since the two phrases together contain the first two (of the four) primary aorist verbs which govern the hymn. The verb tapeino/w means “make/bring low, lower”, sometimes in an ethical sense connoting humbleness and humility. That is how the verb tends to be used in Jesus’ teaching, in the context of a dualistic contrast with the verb u(yo/w (“make high”). Believers are to make themselves low, in meekness and humility, and through a willingness to sacrifice oneself in service to others (cf. the core saying par. in Matt 23:12; Lk 14:11; 18:14; also Matt 18:4, and note James 4:10). Paul uses the verb in a similar manner (2 Cor 11:7; 12:21; Phil 4:12).

While the same sort of context prevails in chapter 2 of Philippians (cf. 2:1-4), the specific use of tapeino/w here in the hymn has a deeper Christological meaning as well. It refers, not just to the example of Jesus’ humility and self-sacrifice, in a practical sense, but to its supreme manifestation in his becoming a human being (i.e., the incarnation). Jesus not only “emptied himself”,willing to give up his exalted position alongside God in heaven, and become a human being, he also “lowered himself” still further, going even beyond the lowly position of a human slave.

2:8b

geno/meno$ (“coming to be”)—this same aorist participle (of the verb gi/nomai, “come to be, become”) was used in v. 7c (cf. in Part 2), and, indeed, functions the same way in relation to the phrase “he lowered himself” as the participial phrases in v. 7 (in relation to “he emptied himself”). The remainder of v. 8 describes what it means for Jesus to “lower himself”, just as the phrases in v. 7 explain what his “emptying” entailed.

u(ph/koo$ (“hearing under”)—this predicate adjective, used here in a substantive manner (i.e. characterizing a person who is u(ph/koo$), should be considered in light of the parallelism with v. 7c:

    • “coming to be in (the) likeness of men” (e)n o(moiw/mati a)nqrw/pwn geno/meno$)
    • “coming to be (one who) hears under…” (geno/meno$ u(ph/koo$)

The phrase in v. 7c is also subordinate to that of v. 7b, and so “coming to be in the likeness of men” must be understood in relation to the idea of “taking the form of a slave”. This helps to explain the important aspect of Jesus’ humanity expressed in v. 8. A slave is one who “hears under” (i.e., following the commands, etc, of) the authority of a superior; God, of course, is the superior of all, but Jesus willingly submitted (like a slave) to human authorities as well, sinful and wicked though they may be. The adjective u(ph/koo$ is derived from the verb u(pakou/w (“hear under”), and generally refers to one who listens obediently, in submission, to a figure in authority. The sort of submission described here is elsewhere expressed vividly in the Gospel tradition—most notably, in the three Synoptic predictions by Jesus of his Passion (Mark 8:31; 9:30-32; 10:32-34), and in the Passion Narrative itself. The Jewish and Roman authorities equally play a central role in the suffering and death of Jesus. He submits to them, in meekness and humility, scarcely saying a word in his defense (in the Synoptic narrative, at least), effectively fulfilling the prophecy of Isa 53:7-8 (cf. Acts 8:28-35).

It is possible that Paul’s use of the verb u(ph/koo$, which contains the prefixed element u(po/ (“under”), may echo his (earlier) usage of that preposition in reference to the dual-bondage of humankind: (1) “under sin” (u(po\ a(marti/an, Gal 3:22 [cf. also v. 10]; Rom 7:14), and (2) “under (the) Law” (u(po\ no/mon, Gal 3:23; 4:4-5, etc; Rom 6:14-15). In the earlier studies of this series (cf. also the discussion in Part 1 of this article), we considered both aspects in relation to the incarnation and birth of Jesus. That Jesus came to be under the binding authority of the old covenant, willingly submitting to the required duties and regulations of the Torah, is clear from the wording (and context) in both Gal 4:4 [study] and Rom 15:8 [study]. As far as the bondage under sin, this is indicated in Rom 8:3ff and 2 Cor 5:21 [study]; again, he willingly submitted himself to this bondage, but for the ultimate purpose of freeing humankind from it. He also freed humankind (believers) from the binding power of the Law (Torah), but this particular aspect of the bondage/submission-motif is not being emphasized by Paul in Philippians.

me/xri qana/tou (“to the point of death”)—The adverb me/xri (used as a preposition) indicates the point of termination for a time (or place), i.e. “up to the point of, until”. The common noun qana/to$ (“death”) is in the genitive case here, governed by the preposition me/xri. Jesus submitted to the wicked human authorities, no less than to God Himself, as part of his self-sacrificial, redemptive mission on earth. Such submission meant his death, which signifies a position even lower than that of a slave. A slave may possess only limited rights or freedom, but he/she can still live in some measure of comfort and security, under the authority of others. While for an oppressed slave, death can, at times, be seen as a kind of freedom, most slaves still value life, and would seek to avoid the threat of death.

2:8c

qana/tou de\ staurou= (“even of death of [the] stake”)—This final qualifying phrase shares the same governing preposition me/xri  from 8b, i.e. “even to the point of death at the stake”. The conjunctive particle de/ (“but, and”) is used in a continuative (and emphatic) sense—i.e., even to death at the stake. Any death might be feared, but death by crucifixion in ancient times (and as practiced by the Romans) was especially horrific. It tended to be reserved for the worst criminals, and for members of the lower classes (slaves, etc) as a punishment for treason and other high crimes. Jesus’ death by crucifixion is well-established in the Gospel tradition, though depicted with relatively little detail in the narrative (even the gruesome scourging prior to hanging is barely mentioned). It was an especially painful and humiliating manner of death, and one which created tremendous obstacles for early Christians in their attempts to convince fellow Jews, especially, that Jesus was the promised Messiah. Paul fully understood the weight of this apparent contradiction (Gal 3:10-14, etc), and yet embraced the fact of Jesus’ crucifixion (“the cross”) as a central part of the Gospel message (1 Cor 1:17-18; Gal 5:11; 6:14; Col 1:20; 2:14).

The noun stauro/$ literally means “stake, post, pole”, set upright in the ground, and which could be used then for various forms of punishment, etc. It is usually translated “cross” in the New Testament and other early Christian writings; but, while “cross” captures the idea of crucifixion (with the cross-piece for supporting the arms of the victim), it is inaccurate as a translation of stauro/$.

Conclusion

The idea of the incarnation (and birth) of Jesus, insofar as it is expressed by the phrases in vv. 7-8 (and esp. by the use of the verb gi/nomai), is closely tied to that of his suffering and death. Indeed, the death of Jesus (by crucifixion) marks the climactic point of his kenotic descent (from heaven to earth), as described in the first half of the Christ-hymn (vv. 6-8). The two main aorist verbs (in v. 7a and 8a), reflect two distinct stages in this process: (a) “he emptied [e)ke/nwsen] himself”, and (b) “he lowered [e)tapei/nwsen] himself”. Even if the incarnation, properly, is represented by the “emptying” (i.e., kenosis) in verse 7, it culminates with the “lowering” (i.e., tapeinosis) in verse 8.

This stage of self-lowering involves the specific idea of submission: viz., Christ willingly submitted, putting himself under (u(po/) different levels of binding authority. First he submitted himself to the authority of God Himself (implied in v. 6), and then to the Law of God—as expressed by the covenant with Israel and its Torah; see esp. the incarnational aspects of the statements in Gal 4:4 and Rom 15:8, discussed above (and in the prior articles). He also submitted to the various human authorities (and laws) on earth, however corrupt or wicked they might be. This is expressed best by the Passion narrative in the Gospels, especially the complete lack of resistance shown by Jesus during the course of his arrest, interrogation, and execution (cf. above). In submitting himself to the human authorities (of the current wicked world-order) in this way, Jesus also demonstrates that he has come to be “under sin” (i.e., the human bondage under sin), and willingly accepts the situation, in order to fulfill the greater purpose of God (cf. Rom 8:3ff, which we will be discussing in detail). Jesus’ temporary submission to the binding power of sin (over humankind) leads to his suffering the cruel and shameful death by crucifixion—a form of execution typically reserved for the worst criminals and ‘sinners’.

Paul discusses this last point in Galatians 3:10-14, where he specifically refers to Jesus, in his incarnate humanity, as being “under the curse” (u(po\ kata/ran)—an expression which blends together both aspects of humankind being “under sin” and “under the Law” (cf. above). Indeed, Christ became the curse himself (v. 13), just as he was made to become sin (2 Cor 5:21; cf. Rom 8:3). We noted the strong incarnational aspect and orientation of these references, especially with their use of the verb of becoming (gi/nomai), just as here in vv. 7-8 of the hymn.

*        *        *        *        *        *

This brings to a close the set of articles in this series that deal with the Christological use of the verb gi/nomai by Paul. In the second set, we will focus on the theme of the Divine Sonship of Jesus (esp. utilizing the term ui(o/$, “son”), along with the specific motif of God (the Father) sending His Son. We will begin with a further examination of the confessional statement in Romans 1:3-4, considering this reference to Jesus as God’s Son in the light of the early Christian (Gospel) traditions that Paul inherited.