The Expression “the son of man” in the Remainder of the New Testament
The expression “the son of man” (o( ui(o\$ tou= a)nqrw/pou) occurs just four times outside of the Gospels (compared with 82 in the Gospels). As we shall see, three of these four would seem to be influenced by the Gospel Tradition (esp. the sayings in Mark 13:26; 14:62 par), and can be considered as an extension of the use of this expression in the Tradition. This means that the expression is virtually exclusive to the Gospel Tradition, where it is almost always found on the lips of Jesus. There is little indication that the expression played any role among early Christians as a Messianic or Christological title (it is completely absent from Paul’s letters, for example). Indeed, it appears to have relatively little importance within early Christian theology. This seems to have been the case even in the Johannine churches, in spite of the fact that the expression carries distinctive Christological significance in the Gospel of John (cf. the conclusion to our studies on the Johannine sayings). The expression does not occur at all in 1 John, even though the incarnation (viz., the Son as a human being, “the Son of man”) was, by all accounts, at the heart of the Christological controversy addressed in this treatise (see esp. 4:2 [par 2 Jn 7]).
Broadly speaking, one may consider the Book of Revelation as a Johannine work, produced within the network of Johannine churches. Though it is very different in language, style, and theological emphasis, from either the Gospel or Letters, there are enough common features and points of similarity to suggest a shared cultural milieu and environment. The center of the Johannine Community has often been located in Asia Minor (the region around Ephesus); if this identification is correct, it would correspond to the provenance (and audience) of the Book of Revelation (1:4, 11; chaps. 2 and 3).
Revelation 1:13
The expression “the son of man” occurs twice in the Book of Revelation. The first occurrence is at the beginning of the work, in the first vision (1:9-20). In the description by the author/seer of the divine/heavenly being who speaks to him (“and I turned about to see the voice that spoke with me”, v. 12a), we read:
“…I saw seven golden lamp(stand)s, and, in the midst of the lamp(stand)s, (one) like a son of man [o%moion ui(o\n a)nqrw/pou]” (12b-13a)
It is noteworthy that, even though this figure is clearly to be identified as the exalted Jesus (v. 18, etc), the expression “(the) son of man” is decidedly not used as a title (nor is it in 14:14, see below). This accords with the Gospel usage, as a whole, in light of the Old Testament background of the expression—viz., “son of man” simply means a human being.
Yet this is certainly not an ordinary human being; rather it is the exalted Jesus, who was raised from the dead, and then elevated to a divine/heavenly position at the “right hand” of God (cf. below on Acts 7:55-56). In verse 13, this exalted personage is referenced in the manner of the heavenly figure of Daniel 7:13: “(one) like a son of man” (Aramaic vn`a$ rb^K=). In Greek [LXX & Theod], this is translated w($ ui(o\$ a)nqrw/pou (“[one] as a son of man”); the rendering here in the Book of Revelation, using the adjective o%moio$ (“like, resembling”), is a bit more precise. It makes clear that this heavenly figure resembles a human being (“son of man”). For more on the description in vv. 12-16, cf. my earlier note.
This allusion to Daniel 7:13 is all the more significant given the earlier reference to this passage in verse 7:
“See, he comes with the clouds!—and every eye shall gaze (openly on) him, even the ones who stabbed him, and all the offshoots [i.e. tribes/clans] of the earth shall beat (themselves) over him.”
The phrase “he comes with the clouds” (e&rxetai meta\ tw=n nefelw=n) alludes to the descriptive wording in Dan 7:13: “with (the) clouds of the heavens, (one) like a son of man was coming…” The peculiar Aramaic periphrastic verbal expression “was coming” (hw`h& ht@a*) is translated in the LXX by an imperfect form of the verb e&rxomai (“come”), h&rxeto (“was coming”)—suggesting a regular or continual action. Here in Rev 1:7, a present tense form is used (e&rxetai, “he comes”), implying an impending action (in the present). Our author also follows the Theodotion version, by rendering the preposition <u! (“with”) by the corresponding meta/ (“with”); the LXX has e)pi/ (“upon”), which is also used in 14:14 (cf. below).
It is all but certain that the author of the book of Revelation did not draw upon Dan 7:13f independently; rather, he inherited it from the Gospel Tradition. In particular, there are two Synoptic “son of man” sayings by Jesus (Mk 13:26; 14:62 par) which clearly refer to Dan 7:13f. Some scholars would see Dan 7:13f as the inspiration for all of the “son of man” sayings (or, at least all of the eschatological sayings). I will discuss the possible influence of the Daniel passage in a supplemental study. For now, I will limit any possible influence on the Book of Revelation to the Synoptic sayings in Mk 13:26 and 14:62 (discussed in an earlier study). Of these two sayings, the one in Mk 13:26 (part of the ‘Eschatological Discourse’ of chap. 13) is more straightforward in contextual meaning, but also more difficult when judged at the historical level. In context, it clearly refers to the ‘second’ coming (parousia) of Jesus—viz., the end-time appearance of the exalted Jesus, which will usher in the Judgment.
It is this same eschatological orientation which informs the allusions to Dan 7:13 here in Rev 1:7 and 13. The author/seer is unquestionably referring to the end-time appearance (on earth) of the exalted Jesus. Dependence upon the Gospel Tradition in this regard would seem to be confirmed by the fact that both Rev 1:7 and the Matthean version of the Mk 13:26 saying (Matt 24:30) have a combined allusion to Dan 7:13 and Zech 12:10. The quotation of Zech 12:10 in John 19:37, in reference to the crucifixion (‘stabbing/piercing’) of Jesus, allows us to conclude that the book of Revelation likely inherited this dual-reference through the Johannine line of Tradition.
The application of Dan 7:13f to the end-time return (second coming) of Jesus departs from the natural sense of the passage, and reflects an early Christian re-interpretation of the Scripture. In the original Daniel passage, the “one like a son of man” approaches God the Father (the ‘Ancient of Days’) in heaven. This would more naturally apply to the post-resurrection exaltation of Jesus, rather than his subsequent return to earth. Indeed, the use of Dan 7:13f in Mark 14:62 par would seem to have Jesus’ exaltation (to the right hand of God in heaven) as the saying’s primary point of reference. For more on this, see the discussion of Acts 7:55-56 below.
Revelation 14:14
Both aspects of the Dan 7:13f reference—exalted position in heaven and end-time appearance (at the Judgment)—as applied to Jesus, would seem to be present in the second occurrence of the expression, in 14:14. Unquestionably, vv. 14-20 provides a short but vivid (and intense) vision of the end-time Judgment, corresponding generally to the climactic section of the Eschatological Discourse (Mark 13:24-27 par). In both uses of the Gospel Tradition, the exalted Jesus is identified with the Danielic “one like a son of man”, coming in the clouds. Here is how the introduction to the vision of 14:14-20 reads:
“And I saw, and see—a white cloud! And upon the cloud was sitting (one) like a son of man [o%moion ui(o\n a)nqrw/pou], holding upon his head a golden wreath, and in his hand (was) a sharp plucking-tool.” (v. 14)
The time of harvest (reaping, qerismo/$) was a natural image for symbolizing the end of the current Age (and the end-time Judgment). It occurs a number of times in the teaching of Jesus and elsewhere in the New Testament—Matt 3:12 par; 13:30, 41-43 [cp Mk 13:27 par]; cf. also Mk 4:29; Matt 9:37-38 par; Jn 4:35; James 3:18. This eschatological harvest-imagery is largely derived from the motif as it occurs in the Prophets (e.g., Isa 24:13; Jer 50:16; 51:33); here the reference is principally to Joel 3:13ff (cf. also Isa 5:7). For more on vv. 14-20, see my earlier note.
Acts 7:56
If the references in Rev 1:7, 13 and 14:14 refer primarily to the eschatological tradition in Mark 13:26 par, the “son of man” reference in Acts 7:55 clearly refers to the tradition in Mk 14:62 par. Indeed, the author of Luke-Acts is drawing an intentional parallel between Jesus’ saying (Lk 22:69, during his interrogation before the Sanhedrin) and the visionary utterance of Stephen (Acts 7:55-56, also in the context of a Sanhedrin interrogation, 6:12-7:1ff). It is worth comparing these specifically; first, let us consider the Lukan version of the “son of man” saying:
“But from now (on), the son of man shall be sitting at the right (hand) of the power of God” (Lk 22:69)
There are several key differences between this Lukan version and the core Synoptic Tradition (Mk 14:62 par). Most notably, the Lukan version has essentially removed (or does not include) any detail that could be taken as a reference to the end-time return of the exalted Jesus. There is no mention of people (spec. members of the Sanhedrin) seeing the “son of man”; likewise, there is no mention of his “coming” (vb e&rxomai). The Lukan author has clearly shaped the tradition so that it refers only to the exaltation of Jesus (after his death and resurrection). The eschatological aspect of the second coming (Mk 13:26, par Lk 21:27) is retained by the Gospel writer, but only in the context of the Eschatological Discourse.
In the framework of Luke-Acts, the saying in Lk 22:69 functions strictly as a prophecy of Jesus’ exaltation, the fulfillment of which is confirmed by the vision in Acts 7:55f. Jesus has been raised and has ascended to heaven (1:9-11), and the first missionary preachers have declared that he is now at the “right hand” of God in heaven (2:33-34; 5:31), but Stephen’s vision provides eye-witness testimony in confirmation of this fact. The vision comes in 7:55:
“…full of the holy Spirit, (hav)ing stretched (to look) into the heaven, he saw (the) splendor [do/ca] of God, and Yeshua standing at (the) right (hand) of God”
There is actually no particular allusion here to Dan 7:13f; rather, it is Psalm 110:1 (cf. my earlier study on this reference), understood among early Christians as a prophecy of Jesus’ exaltation (cf. Acts 2:34-35; Heb 1:13), that is primarily in view. The reference to Dan 7:13f comes with the use of the expression “the son of man” in the utterance by Stephen, in v. 56:
“and he said: ‘See! I am looking at the heavens opened throughout, and (at) the son of man standing at (the) right (hand) of God!”
It is from this exalted position (alluded to in Rev 14:14, see above), that Jesus will return to earth (cf. Acts 1:11), to gather up the righteous (believers), and to usher in the Judgment (10:42; 17:31). In this regard, both the book of Acts and the book of Revelation, are closely following the Gospel Tradition. The “son of man” sayings in Mk 13:26 and 14:62 par are a key part of this Tradition and contain cornerstone teachings for the early Christian eschatology. It is one of the few aspects of Jesus’ use of the expression that was retained by first-century Christians (outside of the Gospels), largely because of the eschatological importance of Daniel 7:13 (and the book of Daniel as a whole).